Helping Behavior: Definitions, Theories, and Key Studies in Psychology

Altruism

Helping that benefits others but requires self-sacrifice on the part of the helper

- no regard for personal consequences or potential harm

- no expectation of receiving a reward

Prosocial behaviour

Helping that benefits others, regardless of motives

- a broader category than altruism

Relationship between altruism and prosocial behaviour

- many prosocial acts are not altruistic

- e.g. volunteering to impress others

Why are helping behaviours studied?

To understand why people sometimes help heroically and at other times fail to help

- even in serious emergencies

Wilson Ross case

An example showing that people sometimes help heroically

- individuals risk their lives to help

Kitty Genovese case

A case showing that people sometimes fail to help when help is clearly needed

- many people saw or heard something bad

- no one called the police

Questions raised by the Kitty Genovese case

- was it something about the people?

- the level of involvement required?

- or the situation itself?

neighburs reasonns for not helping in the Kitty Genovese case

- thought it was a lovers' quarrel

- afraid

- did not want husband involved

- could not see clearly (lack of light)

- tired

- many situational excuses

Key questions in helping behaviour research

WHY - explanations for helping behaviour

WHEN - variables that increase or decrease likelihood of helping

Main perspectives on helping behaviour

- decision-making

- learning

- social norms

- evolutionary

- social exchange theory

Decision-making perspective on helping

Helping behaviour depends on a series of cognitive decisions made in a potential emergency

- failure at any stage reduces likelihood of helping

Stages in deciding to help

1. Notice the situation

2. Decide it is an emergency

3. Take responsibility

4. Weigh costs and benefits

5. Decide how to help

Stage 1: noticing the situation

Helping requires first noticing that something is happening

- distraction or ambiguity can prevent noticing

Clark and Word (1972) - noticing the situation

- Ps completing tasks in a room

- man falls from a ladder in hallway

- IV: victim cries out vs no cry

- more and faster helping when cries were heard

Stage 1b: is it an emergency?

People must interpret the situation as requiring help

- influenced by environmental cues and others' reactions

Latané and Darley (1968) - smoke study

- students working alone in a lab

- smoke gradually filled the room

- many Ps took no action

- assumed harmless explanations (air conditioning, pipes, chemistry lab)

- shows ambiguity reduces helping

Stage 2: taking responsibility

People must feel personally responsible for helping

Moriarity (1975) - taking responsibility

- beach study

- person asks (or does not ask) P to watch belongings

- belongings stolen by confederate

- Ps over 3x more likely to help after making a commitment

Stage 3: weighing costs and benefits

People consider danger, effort, embarrassment, and risk before helping

Shotland and Straw (1976) - costs and benefits

- Ps witness a quarrel

- strangers condition vs married couple condition

- 3x more intervention when couple appeared to be strangers

- married couple perceived as more dangerous

Stage 4: how can I help?

Helping is more likely when people feel competent

Cramer et al. (1988) - competence

- ladder accident paradigm

- nurses vs control Ps

- nurses helped more

- perceived competence increases helping

Presence of others and helping

The likelihood of helping decreases as the number of bystanders increases, bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility

Bystander effect

People are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present

Diffusion of responsibility

A reduced sense of personal responsibility when others are present

- assumption that someone else will help

Latané and Darley (1968) - group smoke study

- alone: 75% reported smoke

- with passive confederates: 10%

- with strangers: 38%

- Ps used others' inaction to interpret situation

Darley and Latané (1968) - seizure study

- intercom-based discussion

- Ps believed others were present

- heard accomplice having epileptic seizure

- helping decreased as perceived number of others increased

Learning perspective on helping

Helping behaviour is learned through experience and observation

Mechanisms of learning helping

- reinforcement

- modelling

- observational learning

Mills and Grusec (1989) - reinforcement

- children asked to share toys

- dispositional praise ("you are helpful")

- stronger long-term prosocial behaviour

Bryan and Test (1967) - modelling

- Ps observed a driver helping (or not)

- later encountered stranded driver

- observing helping increased helping

Elevation

Uplifting positive feelings after observing virtuous acts

Schnall et al. (2010) - elevation

- Ps watched elevation, mirth, or neutral clips

- elevation increased helping and persistence

Social norms perspective on helping

People help because they internalise social rules

Key social norms related to helping

- social responsibility

- reciprocity

- social justice

Evolutionary perspective on helping

Helping influenced by genetic relatedness

- more likely to help close relatives

- reciprocity explains helping strangers

Social exchange theory

Helping aims to maximise rewards and minimise costs

Rewards of helping (exchange theory)

- expectation of future help

- reduced distress

- social approval

- reduced physical pain

Weinstein and Ryan (2010) - benefits of helping

- voluntary prosocial behaviour increases well-being

- benefits helper and recipient

Wang et al. (2020) - helping and pain

- altruistic actions reduced brain responses to pain

Batson's empathy-altruism model

Helping reflects both self-interested and altruistic motives

Three motives in Batson's model

- empathic concern

- social reward

- personal distress

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Empathic concern

Imagining the feelings of another person

- having positive regard for others

Toi and Batson (1982) - empathy and helping

- Ps learned about injured student

- empathy and cost of not helping manipulated

(imagine how she feels, will/won't see her in class)

- high empathy led to helping regardless of cost

Depow et al. (2021) - empathy in daily life

- experience sampling over 7 days

- more empathy linked to greater happiness and well-being

Key findings from Depow et al. (2021)

- empathy opportunities are common

- low confidence in empathising linked to lower well-being

- women empathised more than men