Key Events in Chinese History from Confucius to Xi Jinping

Confucius

Chinese philosopher (551-479 BCE) whose teachings formed the foundation of Confucianism. His philosophy emphasized ethics, family loyalty, respect for elders, and proper governance.

Mandate of Heaven

The divine right to rule, a concept used to justify the legitimacy of Chinese emperors. If an emperor ruled poorly, it was believed they could lose this mandate, leading to rebellion and regime change.

Scholar-Gentry

Educated elite who were well-versed in Confucian texts and played key roles in government administration during imperial China.

Three Bonds

A Confucian idea emphasizing hierarchical relationships in society: ruler and subject, father and son, and husband and wife, highlighting loyalty and obedience.

Imperial Bureaucracy

A centralized administrative system in China where officials were appointed to govern various parts of the empire. These officials were typically drawn from the scholar-gentry class.

Examination System

A rigorous series of tests based on Confucian texts, used to select candidates for bureaucratic positions. This merit-based system shaped the intellectual and political landscape of imperial China.

Qing (Manchu) Dynasty (1644-1911)

The last imperial dynasty of China, established by the Manchu people. It oversaw major territorial expansion, but its latter years were marked by internal strife, foreign invasions, and reform attempts.

Extraterritoriality

Legal practice that allowed foreign nationals in China to be tried under their home country's laws rather than Chinese law. It was imposed as part of unequal treaties, including the Treaty of Nanjing.

Opium Wars (1839-1842; 1856-1860)

Conflicts between China and Britain (later France joined) over trade imbalances and the illegal opium trade. The wars resulted in humiliating defeats for China and the imposition of unequal treaties.

Commissioner Lin (Lin Zexu)

A prominent Qing official known for his strong opposition to the opium trade. His efforts to suppress opium led to the First Opium War.

Treaty of Nanjing (1842)

A treaty that ended the First Opium War (1839-1842) between Britain and China. It was the first of the 'unequal treaties,' granting significant concessions to Britain, including: The cession of Hong Kong to Britain. Opening of five treaty ports for trade (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai). Extraterritorial rights for British citizens. Large indemnity payments from China to Britain.

Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

A massive civil war in southern China led by Hong Xiuquan. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, with millions of casualties. Key aspects include: Hong Xiuquan's claim of being the younger brother of Jesus Christ, leading to a unique Christian-inspired ideology. The rebellion's goal of overthrowing the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty and establishing the 'Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace.' Radical social reforms such as land redistribution, gender equality, and the abolition of traditional Confucian practices. Ultimately suppressed by Qing forces with aid from Western powers.

Hong Xiuquan

Leader of the Taiping Rebellion. He believed he had a divine mission after a series of visions and created a movement combining elements of Christianity with anti-Manchu sentiments. His leadership led to a complex blend of religious fervor, social reform, and military campaigns against the Qing Dynasty.

The Restoration (1862-1874)

An effort led by Qing officials such as Zeng Guofan to stabilize the Qing Dynasty after the Taiping Rebellion. It emphasized Confucian values, restoring order, and modernizing the military and economy to address internal and external challenges.

Zeng Guofan

A prominent Qing official and military leader instrumental in suppressing the Taiping Rebellion. He advocated for limited modernization and reform within the framework of Confucian tradition.

Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)

A series of reforms aimed at modernizing China's military, industry, and infrastructure while preserving Confucian values. It included building arsenals, shipyards, and schools, but was ultimately limited by conservative resistance.

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)

A war between China and Japan over control of Korea. Japan's victory highlighted China's weakness and marked the rise of Japan as a major power.

Treaty of Shimonoseki

Resulted in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, ceding Taiwan to Japan and granting further concessions.

Hundred Days Reform

A brief period of intense reform led by Emperor Guangxu and thinkers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. It aimed to modernize China's education, military, and economy. Ended by a coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi, who imprisoned Guangxu and halted the reforms.

Kang Youwei

A Confucian scholar and reformist who advocated constitutional monarchy and modernizing reforms. His ideas influenced the Hundred Days Reform.

Sun Yat-sen

Often called the 'Father of Modern China,' he was a revolutionary leader who advocated for republicanism and overthrew the Qing Dynasty in the 1911 Revolution. Founder of the Guomindang (GMD), or Nationalist Party, and proponent of the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and livelihood.

Boxer Rebellion

An anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising led by the secretive Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists ('Boxers'). Suppressed by an international coalition, resulting in the Boxer Protocol, which imposed harsh penalties on China.

'Slicing of the Melon'

A term describing the period when foreign powers carved up China into spheres of influence, exploiting its resources and markets.

Warlords

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, regional military leaders (warlords) gained power and controlled parts of China, leading to political fragmentation during the 1910s and 1920s.

1911 Revolution

A revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China. Marked the end of over two millennia of imperial rule.

Guomindang

Also known as the Nationalist Party, founded by Sun Yat-sen. It sought to unify China and implement Sun's Three Principles of the People.

May 4th Movement

A student-led protest against the Treaty of Versailles, which granted Japanese control over former German territories in China. It sparked a broader cultural and political movement advocating modernization, nationalism, and anti-imperialism.

Chen Duxiu

A co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and key intellectual during the May 4th Movement. He advocated Marxism and radical change in Chinese society.

Li Dazhao

Another co-founder of the CCP and a prominent Marxist thinker. He was influential in introducing Marxist ideas to China, particularly among students and intellectuals.

First United Front

An alliance between the Guomindang (GMD) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to end warlordism and unify China. Facilitated by the Comintern (Communist International), which encouraged cooperation despite ideological differences. Collapsed in 1927 after Chiang Kai-shek's violent purge of Communists during the Shanghai Massacre.

Northern Expedition

A military campaign led by the GMD under Chiang Kai-shek to defeat warlords and unify China under a central government. Successful in consolidating much of China, but tensions between the GMD and CCP grew, leading to the split.

Comintern

An organization founded in 1919 to promote worldwide communist revolution. Provided ideological and logistical support to both the CCP and the First United Front, playing a significant role in early CCP development.

Chiang Kai-shek

Leader of the GMD after Sun Yat-sen's death. Focused on defeating warlords, opposing Communists, and modernizing China. Fled to Taiwan after losing the Chinese Civil War to the CCP in 1949.

Long March

A strategic retreat by the CCP from southeastern China to Yan'an in the northwest to escape GMD forces. Covered over 6,000 miles; out of around 86,000 participants, only about 10,000 survived. Cemented Mao Zedong's leadership within the CCP.

Mao Zedong

Leader of the CCP and a key figure in Chinese communism. Rose to prominence during the Long March and eventually led the CCP to victory in the Chinese Civil War, founding the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Second United Front

A temporary alliance between the GMD and CCP to resist the Japanese invasion during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Marked by continued distrust and sporadic clashes between the two factions despite their shared enemy.

Dixie Mission

A U.S. effort during World War II to establish relations with the CCP in Yan'an. The mission assessed the CCP's capabilities and political intentions but did not lead to U.S. support for the Communists.

Marshall Mission

A diplomatic effort led by U.S. General George C. Marshall to mediate between the GMD and CCP after World War II. Failed to prevent the resumption of the Chinese Civil War, as deep-seated ideological and political differences proved irreconcilable.

Thought Reform

A campaign initiated in the early 1950s to align intellectuals and citizens with the ideology of the Communist Party. Focused on self-criticism, reeducation, and indoctrination through study sessions on Marxism-Leninism and Maoist thought.

APCs (Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives)

A policy in the early 1950s to collectivize agriculture by organizing peasants into cooperatives. Initial steps involved mutual aid teams, followed by lower-level and higher-level cooperatives, leading to eventual full collectivization.

Hundred Flowers Movement

A brief period where the CCP encouraged intellectuals and citizens to openly express opinions on governance and societal issues under the slogan 'Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend.' When criticism of the Party became widespread, the movement ended abruptly, and many critics were persecuted during the subsequent Anti-Rightist Campaign.

Five-Year Plan

China's first major economic plan modeled after the Soviet Union's approach to industrialization. Focused on heavy industry, infrastructure, and collectivizing agriculture. Achieved some industrial growth but strained agricultural production.

Great Leap Forward

Mao's campaign to rapidly transform China into a modern, industrialized society by emphasizing mass mobilization and collectivization. Creation of People's Communes, which combined villages into large collective units for agriculture and industrial production. Resulted in catastrophic famine (1959-1961), with millions of deaths due to flawed policies and overreporting of grain production.

Liu Shaoqi

A senior CCP leader and pragmatic reformer who initially supported Mao but later criticized the Great Leap Forward. Advocated for economic policies based on realistic assessments of productivity. Fell out of favor during the Cultural Revolution and was purged and denounced by Mao's faction.

People's Communes

Large collective farming and living units formed during the Great Leap Forward. Aimed to integrate agricultural, industrial, and social activities, but mismanagement and unrealistic production targets led to widespread famine.

Red vs. Expert Debate

A political conflict within the CCP over the role of ideology ('Red') versus technical expertise ('Expert') in shaping policy. Mao and his supporters emphasized ideological purity and revolutionary fervor, while pragmatists like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping advocated for technical expertise and practical approaches to economic development.

Cultural Revolution

A political and social movement initiated by Mao Zedong to reassert his authority and revive revolutionary fervor. Targeted perceived 'bourgeois' elements, entrenched bureaucrats, and those labeled as 'Capitalist Roaders' (people allegedly steering China toward capitalism). Disrupted education, economy, and governance, leading to widespread chaos and violence.

Red Guards

Radicalized youth groups mobilized by Mao to carry out the Cultural Revolution. Tasked with attacking the 'Four Olds' (old customs, culture, habits, and ideas), destroying cultural artifacts, and persecuting intellectuals and Party officials. Their activities led to social upheaval and factional fighting.

Little Red Book

Officially titled Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong, this was a collection of Mao's thoughts and sayings. Used as a propaganda tool during the Cultural Revolution and carried by Red Guards and citizens to demonstrate loyalty to Mao.

Capitalist Roaders

A derogatory term for Party members accused of promoting capitalist policies. Used by Mao to target moderate leaders like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, who were purged during the Cultural Revolution.

Gang of Four

A political faction led by Jiang Qing (Mao's wife) and her allies Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. Played a leading role in enforcing the Cultural Revolution's radical policies.

Lin Biao

Mao's close ally and designated successor during the early years of the Cultural Revolution. Played a major role in promoting the Little Red Book and Mao's cult of personality.

Jiang Qing

Mao's wife and a key member of the Gang of Four. Instrumental in controlling cultural policy during the Cultural Revolution, advocating for revolutionary art and attacking traditional forms of culture.

The Second Revolution

Refers to the period of economic and social reform initiated by Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s and 1980s. Focused on transitioning China from a planned economy to a more market-oriented one while maintaining political control under the Communist Party.

Deng Xiaoping

Paramount leader of China after Mao Zedong's death. Architect of China's economic reforms and Four Modernizations, which emphasized pragmatic policies over ideological rigidity.

Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

Designated areas in China (e.g., Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Xiamen, and Shantou) established in the 1980s to attract foreign investment and experiment with capitalist practices.

Treaty Ports

Refers to the ports forcibly opened to foreign trade and residence during the 19th-century 'Unequal Treaties' following events like the Opium Wars.

Lost Generation

Refers to the millions of Chinese youth sent to rural areas during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) as part of the 'Down to the Countryside' movement.

Four Modernizations

A policy introduced by Deng Xiaoping to revitalize China's economy and society. Focused on agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology.

Wei Jingsheng

A Chinese democracy activist known for his 1978 essay, 'The Fifth Modernization,' which called for democracy as a complement to Deng Xiaoping's Four Modernizations.

The Fifth Modernization

An essay by Wei Jingsheng, posted on the Democracy Wall in Beijing in 1978. Criticized the lack of political reform and called for greater personal freedoms and democracy in China.

Tiananmen Massacre (1989)

Refers to the violent suppression of pro-democracy protests in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, on June 4, 1989.

Jiang Zemin (1989-2002)

Appointed as General Secretary of the Communist Party after the Tiananmen Massacre, to stabilize the Party and the country.

Hu Jintao

General Secretary and President of China from 2002 to 2012, known for promoting the 'Harmonious Socialist Society' and managing the 2008 Beijing Olympics.

Three Represents

An ideology promoted by Jiang Zemin that expanded the Communist Party's base to include entrepreneurs and technocrats.

Tiananmen Massacre

A significant event in 1989 that resulted in internal dissent and challenges for Chinese leadership.

Xi Jinping

General Secretary since 2012 and President since 2013, known for concentrating power and implementing the Anti-Corruption Campaign.

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

A global infrastructure and investment program aimed at expanding China's influence abroad.

Anti-Corruption Campaign

A wide-ranging campaign targeting corruption at all levels of the Party and military, consolidating Xi Jinping's control.

Military Modernization

Significant investments aimed at modernizing the People's Liberation Army (PLA) under Xi Jinping.

Common Prosperity

A focus under Xi Jinping to address wealth inequality while tightening government control over businesses and society.

Hong Kong Protests

Internal dissent challenging Xi Jinping's leadership, particularly regarding autonomy and governance.

COVID-19 Pandemic

A global health crisis that presented economic challenges for Xi Jinping's administration.

Battle of Hong Kong

A military engagement during World War II where Japanese forces invaded Hong Kong in December 1941.

General Sakai Takashi

The commander of Japanese forces during the Battle of Hong Kong.

General Christopher Maltby

The commander of Allied defenders during the Battle of Hong Kong.

Initial Invasion

The phase of the Battle of Hong Kong that began on December 8, 1941, with Japanese forces crossing the Sham Chun River.

Withdrawal to Hong Kong Island

The retreat of Allied forces to Hong Kong Island on December 13, 1941, after losing the mainland.

Assault on Hong Kong Island

The full-scale invasion of Hong Kong Island by Japanese troops from December 18 to 25, 1941.

Surrender

The event on December 25, 1941, when British Governor Sir Mark Young surrendered to Japanese forces.

Black Christmas

The term used to refer to the day of surrender during the Battle of Hong Kong, December 25, 1941.

Japanese Occupation

The period from December 1941 to August 1945 when Hong Kong was under Japanese control.

Atrocities during Occupation

Widespread executions, forced labor, and starvation that occurred during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.

Legacy of the Battle

The Battle for Hong Kong is remembered as a symbol of Allied resistance against overwhelming odds.

Canadian Troops

Participated in their first significant action in the Pacific during the Battle of Hong Kong and suffered heavy losses.

Handover to China

The event in 1997 when Hong Kong was restored to Chinese control after being a British colony.