Sociology Unit 1&2

Everything for Exam

Sociology

the scientific study of human groups and social behaviour

Ethics

the moral dilemmas that researchers face when conducting and reporting on their research

Informed consent

the formal agreement of an individual to participate in a research project. This occurs after a person has been informed of what participation involves and how the research will be conducted and analysed. It is often obtained through a participant signature.

Voluntary participation

the willing involvement of research participants, and the awareness of their right refuse to participate in a research project without having to give a reason or justification for decision

Privacy

the use of methods, such as disguising personal identities in written and oral reports of the research, in order to protect the identity of participants

Confidentiality

using methods to ensure that the data gathered from research participants is carefully and securely stored

Sociological imagination

sociologist C.W. Mills defined the sociological imagination as the ability to see the impact of social forces on individuals’ private and public lives

Social category

a collection of people who do not interact but who share similar characteristics

Youth

is a socially constructed, aged-based social category appropriate to Western societies, which usually include young people aged between 12 and 24

Cultural factors

culture is the way of thinking, the way of acting and the material objects that form a people’s way of life. An ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage

Cultural Evidence

In 2016-2017 less than 2% of crimes were committed by South Sudanese (SBS, 2017)

Social factors

refers to the broad range of variables, including level of education, employment opportunities, psychical and psychological health, geographic location, gender and age

Social Evidence

23.6% had (LGBTIQ+) experienced homelessness (La Trobe University 2021)

Economic factors

relate to the impact social class and socioeconomic status have on people within society. Social class/ socioeconomic status refers to the social identity and status of groups of people based on shared political, economic and social influences

Economic Evidence

1 in 6 kids in Australia grow up in poverty (SBS,2017)

Technological factors

advancements in tools, equipment and systems that affect diverse facets of human life, such as communication, education, employment and socialisation

Technological Evidence

“Online bullying among children is reaching “concerning levels,” according to Australia’s eSafety commissioner” (The Guardian, 2023)

Family

two or more people, one of whom is at least 15 years of age, who are related by blood, marriage, adoption step or fostering, and who are usually resident in the same household

Institution

a complex social form that reproduces itself. They include other organisations and entities that exist to meet the specific needs of the members of society

Family is a social institution as:

it fulfils the 4 main roles
Socialisation
Emotional stability
Economic stability
Reproduction

Family changes overtime evidence

couple-only families: 28% in 1976 to 39% in 2021
Household size: 4.5 people in 1911 to 2.5 people in 2021

Nuclear family

a married or de facto couple and their biological or adopted children

Extended family

includes relatives beyond the nuclear family

One-parent family

one parent raises a child without the presence of a spouse or partner

Blended family

a composition that results from the merging of two or more previously extended family

Same-sex parent family

children are raised by two parents of the same gender

Multi-generational families

families with at least three generations living together

Functionalist perspective

a family is a necessary institution that benefits society, as a strong family structure is essential for maintaining social order. The family unit serves the four important functions

Feminist perspective

believe that family is bad for women; feminists argue that men benefit from families at the expense of women because the family sustains patriarchy in society

Experience of family

refers to what is like to be part of, and the level of connections with, a family unit.

Cultural developments

the process of creating, protecting and transmitting the beliefs, values, norms, customs, traditions and practices of a society, which are passed down over time.

Cultural developments evidence

48.2% of Australians have a parent who was born overseas (ABS,2021)

Economic developments

the process of improving people’s access to financial resources

Economic developments evidence

cost of food and drink has increased by 62% between 200 and 2018

Technological developments

advancements in technology that have improved and transformed various aspects of human life.

Technological developments evidence

the contraceptive pill was introduced in the 1960s

Social developments

changes and progressions that occur within a society’s social structure and norm over time.

Social developments evidence

In 2017, Australians voted ‘Yes’ to amend the Marriage Act; in 2021, 30% of same-sex couples are married

Deviance

refers to actions considered to be outside a society’s understood and accepted standards of behavior/ the violation of social norms.

Social norms

are rules of conduct that specify appropriate behaviour in a given range of social situations.

Tattoos relative to time

the London Metropolitan Police used to not allow officers to show tattoos, but this rule was relaxed in 2018

Graffiti relative to space/place

In Victoria, it is illegal to mark graffiti on property without the owners consent

Affirmation of society’s cultural norms and values

refers to the reinforcement of behaviour that is acceptable or unacceptable, deviant behaviour is used to confirm and clarify social norms.

Affirmation of society’s cultural norms and values Evidence

“the 490 police officers… members of the public… staff – required counselling.” (The Guardian, 2016)

Clarification of society’s moral boundaries

refers to the limits and consequences used to indicate what is acceptable or unacceptable behaviour; these define the boundary between conformity and deviance.

Clarification of society’s moral boundaries Evidence

“Bryant [had] a semi-automatic … Both [guns] were then legal in Tasmania (The Guardian, 2016)

Unification of others

refers to the sense of solidarity and mutual support experienced when people unite in response to a deviant act that has caused harm or distress.

Unification of others Evidence

“Howard made gun control the focus of a nation in mourning” (The Guardian, 2016)

Promoting social change

refers to deviance challenging and at times changing existing social norms.

Promoting social change Evidence

“requiring people to have a ‘genuine reason’ for having a firearm.” (The Guardian, 2016)

Weak bonds

refers to an individual’s lack of strong and stable attachments to others within society.

Weak Bonds Evidence

Bryant was “a baby who rejected cuddles and any signs of physical affection.”

Attachment

refers to bonds between people, encouraging conformity to shared social norms.

Attachment Evidence

“As Bryant moved into his teens, the theatrical, high-voltage child of primary school was replaced by a high-school recluse.”

Commitment

refers to an individual’s investment of time and energy in conventional behaviour.

Commitment Evidence

“… he was treading water but existing with an established routine of mowing lawns and vegetable rounds”

Involvement

refers to an intense involvement in socially approved activities which means the individual will have less time and opportunities to deviate.

Involvement Evidence

“…his schoolmate, Greg, ended their friendship after Martin stuck the point of a spear gun into the top of his head.”

Positive deviance

refers to any action that deviates from social norms but has beneficial effects or outcomes for the individual and/or society.

Altruism

refers to an action that is performed to help a person or group without reward or acknowledgement.

Charisma

refers to a compelling attractiveness or personal charm that sets an individual apart from others.

Innovation

refers to the process of introducing new ideas or methods that deviate from established norms or traditions.

Supraconformity

refers to an individual’s capacity to perform at a level beyond the normal expectations set by a society.

Innate characteristics

refers to inherent traits or qualities that an individual is born with.

Moral panic

refers to an intense emotional reaction (usually communicated through the mass media) to an issue that is perceived to threaten social order

Folk devils

are groups or individuals who are portrayed in folklore or referred to in the media as deviant or delinquent

Crime

refers to an offence that is punishable by law

Law

refers to A set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behaviour

Punishment

refers to the process whereby someone faces a penalty as retribution for an offence they have committed; it could be physical or financial

Crimes against the person

refer to criminal acts that involve threatening, harassing or injuring another person or depriving them of their freedom.

Crimes against the person evidence

“… a punch to the head is a dangerous act that can kill.” (ABC, 2014)

Crimes against property

refer to criminal acts that involve the unlawful interference, damage, theft or destruction of someone else’s possessions.

Crimes against property evidence

Piccini pled guilty to “… 10 counts of recklessly intentionally causing a fire.” (News.com.au, 2022)

Victimless crime

refers to a criminal act that is consensual in nature, where there is no direct harm or unwilling participant involved.

Victimless crime evidence

“Too many drivers continue to put lives at risk using mobile phones behind the wheel.” (Victorian Minister for Police Anthony Carbines)

Age relating to crime evidence

The median age of offenders was 31 (ABS 2022-23)

Gender relating to crime evidence

92% of prisoners in 2024 were male (ABS,2024)

Other nations dealing with crime

Maximum sentence –
Australia = life, Norway = 21 years
El Salvador = Capital punishment ( death)

Education as a risk factor evidence

“I’ve got stuff to do. When I don’t have stuff to do I just go and do stuff that’s naughty.” (ABC,2023)

Employment and Housing as a risk factor evidence

“A surge in unemployment during the first five months of the pandemic coincided with an increase in firearm violence and homicides in 16 American cities.” (The crime report, 2022)

Mental Health as a risk factor evidence

“Many of the negative factors associated with serious forms of mental illness overlap with the negative social factors that increase the probability of being violent.” (The Conversation, 2024)

Alcohol and Drug as a risk factor evidence

“… the harm directly attributed to the sale and supply of packaged liquor remains the leading contributor of family violence and anti-social behaviour within the identified regions.” (ABC, 2023)

Merton’s Strain Theory

People have a dream, but if they don’t have the same opportunities as others to achieve that dream, there is strain

Conformity

People will continue to try to achieve their goal through legitimate means – confirming to society's norms and values.

Innovation

People realise they will not achieve their goals through legitimate means, so they create innovative ways to achieve them.

Ritualism

People will give up their goals but continue to cycle through the motions of life like a ritual.

Retreatism

People give up on their goals and reject any means that might help them to achieve what they want to do. Instead, they opt to reject mainstream society.

Rebellion

People reject all of society's goals and instead rebel against everything society suggests is the norm.

Retribution

refers to the act of punishing someone as a form of justice or repayment for a wrongdoing they have committed.

Retribution Evidence

“.. at least 4.1% of defendants sentences to death in the US in the modern era are innocent…” (The Guardian, 2014)

Deterrence

refers to the use of punishment or the threat of punishment to dissuade individuals from engaging in illegal or undesirable behaviour.

Deterrence Evidence

“… research on incarceration as a response to crime consistently shows that it has limited to no effect on reducing rates of reoffending.” (The Guardian, 2024)

Rehabilitation

refers to the process of helping individuals convicted of crimes to reform, reintegrate into society, and lead law-abiding and productive lives.

Rehabilitation Evidence

“… ‘no measurement to the prisoners’ mental health benefits as the project gives them ‘purpose’.” (ABC,2023)

Societal protection

refers to the implementation of measures and strategies aimed at safeguarding the wellbeing, safety and interests of the broader community by preventing or minimising harm caused by individuals who pose a threat, usually through incapacitation.

Societal Protection Evidence

In 2017-2021 “ 20% of drivers/riders killed on SA roads tested positive for a prescribed drug.” (Government of South Australia)

Restoration

refers to the approach or process of repairing harm caused by a wrongdoing, focusing on healing, reconciliation and addressing the needs of both the victim and the offender.

Restoration Evidence

“I just really felt like it was my process, not a process that I was being put through.” (ABC,2024)

Recidivism

refers to the tendency or likelihood of a previously convicted individual to engage in criminal behaviour again after their release or after completion of a sentence

Recidivism Evidence

In Victoria, 39.5% of prisoners returned to jail within two years of release in 2020-21 (Sentencing Council Victoria)