3211F: Environmental Politics

What has been the Trump administration’s impact on environmental policy in Canada?

• Justify pipelines as a shield against tariffs.

• Energy exportation debates and talks.

• Development of untouched land in order to fight against tariffs. 

• Albertan separation coming in to talks again as tariffs rise and oil price goes in to contention. 

What are the origins of the green party movement?

• 1972, early environmental oriented fringe parties were found. Ex. UK’s PEOPLE Party (later Ecology Party then the Green Party) 

• 1998, the first mainstream Green Party in West Germany, “Die Grunen” (The Green)

• Emerged from some progressive social movements. 

What are the 4 Pillars that Green Parties were founded? What is the network of green parties called? 

1. Social Justice

2. Ecology

3. Democracy

4. Peace 

Global Greens promoting “Global Greens Charter” 

What is the status of Greens in Europe? 

• They are the most successful in Europe. 

• By the 1990s, were winning seats and being parts of coalition governments. 

• In 2004, European Greens were founded for the European Union Parliament elections. 

What is the status of Green Party in the United States? 

• The Green Party of US emerged in the 80’s at the state level.

• In 1996, activist Ralph Nader ran as the first Green Party presidential candidate and won 0.7% of the vote.

• 2.7% of the vote in 2000

• Since their peak in 2000’s they have not gone above 1.2%

• Influenced progressives in the democratic party to promote the “Green New Deal”

What is the status of the Green Party of Canada?

• Founded in 1983

• Elizabeth May elected as the party’s first MP in 2008- former Exec Director of Sierra Club and advisor to Mulroney Progressive Conservatives (wanted to depoliticize Green). 

• Initially tried to cross the left-right spectrum and in general performed more strongly than the USGP. 

• Increasingly viewed as purely progressive party. 

What are Green Parties and Policies like in Europe? 

• Green parties and environmentalism generally more successful in the EU. 

• Win far more actual seats and participate in coalition governments. 

• The EU leads the US and Canada on environmental policies. 

What is the difference between European and North American in environmentalism?

• EU environmental policies are legally binding, precautionary not reactionary, and consist across political aisles.

• The US has strengths in green tech investment and innovation BUT, policies change with government.

Why is the EU so different? 

1. Ideology: less free market (less opposed to taxes and regulation), less polarized. 

2. Interests: US and Canada are major fossil fuel producers (pressure on parties), EUR has less to lose by reducing carbon emissions. 

3. Geography and History: EUR has less land/older cities not car dependent. 

4. Electoral Systems: FPTP vs Proportional Representation- means more seats/influence for smaller parties like the greens. 

What are the two sides of the Proportional Representation implementation debate?

• Pro Side: argue they get more media coverage and pressure other parties to adopt green policies

• Con Side: Argue they often split the progressive vote and allow conservatives to win.

Origins of Free Market Economics?

• 1776 Adam Smith argued for free market economics based on the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces.

• 1890 Alfred Marshall formalized Smith’s notion of the ‘invisible hand’ through the law of supply, demand and price signals.

What are price signals? 

• Supply and demand are what determine prices. 

• These prices send signals to producers and consumers. 

• This is the invisible hand because they automatically coordinate the behavior of millions.  

Explain the relationship between Price Signals and Fossil Fuels.

• FF non-renewable resource that will eventually reach peak oil (Supply decrease, price increase).

• Rising FF prices signal to producers to increase supply:

  • 1. Pump more oil to increase supply and take advantage of high price.

  • 2. Becomes cost effective to extract more difficult FFs

  • 3. Become cost effective to innovate energy saving and alternatives.

• BUT Rising FF prices also signal consumers to reduce demand.

  • 1. Be more energy efficient.

  • 2. Eventually rising FF prices make it cost effective to switch to alternatives.

What is Market Failure? 

• When free markets will not self-correct the problem . 

• Creates a rationale for government intervention.

• Pollution is generally viewed as a form of “market failure”

What are the 2 Main types of Market failures that apply to pollution and other environmental problems? 

1. Information Asymmetries 

2. Negative Externalities 

Explain Market Failure Type: Information Asymmetries 

• When the buyer/consumer has less information about the product than the seller/producer. Consumer may be unknowingly harmed by the product (ex. pesticides) 

• A market failure because the producer has no incentive to change so the free-market won’t self-correct. 

• Creates rationale for labelling laws or bans- Free market conservatives support labels and don’t support bans (nanny state) on things that hurt only the consumer. 

Explain Market Failure: Negative Externalities 

• Pollution that affects others- e.g. hurting local crops, tourism, health. 

• Negative costs not incorporated into the price making it cheaper than it should be. 

• Meaning price signals will fail, and the free market will not work as it is supposed to- supply and demand fail.  

What are the Third-party costs of pollution in Negative Externalities? 

• Unfair- they affect people who don’t benefit from the product. 

• Inefficient- the cost of pollution can be more than the costs of preventing it. 

• It’s a market failure because the problem will never self-correct e.g. buying a scrubber would cost less than societal harm but companies don’t have incentive as cost of pollution is “externalized” to third parties.

What is the “polluter pays principle”?

• Making those who produce and consume the product that creates the pollution pay for the costs of clean up.

• Its a key component of environmental justice and making sure taxpayers don’t have to pay.

What are Command and Control Regulations?

• Regulations that require emissions to be lowered to a fixed amount.

• Creates incentive to innovate and emit less.- e.g Auto emissions standards Liberals’ Clean Fuel Standard.

• Although effective it lacks flexibility and is more costly for firms.

What are Green Subsidies?

• Subsidies to companies to encourage innovation of green tech. 

• Only work to a certain amount- unless there is something done on the demand side there is little incentive to innovate. 

• Subsidies to consumers and companies to encourage adoption of green tech. 

• Uses government procurement to create a market. 

What is Cap and Trade?

• Adds flexibility to emissions cap by adding trade, e.g “carbon trading”

• Caps alone require companies to reduce emissions to cap in x amount of time. This may be very expensive for companies that didn’t need equipment replacement yet.

• C&T allows firms to go beyond the cap and earn credits they can sell.

  • Company A- reduces below cap and sells credits

  • Company B - buys credits that allow them to emit above cap.

What are the critiques of cap and trade?

• Works in theory, in reality firms can lobby for too many exemptions. 

• At the international level, carbon trading is critiqued as wealth transfers to developing countries with lower caps. 

What are environmental taxes?

• They are the most flexible and market oriented option. e.g taxes on pollution.

• When pollution is no longer free, the cost of product will reflect its real price.

• This “internalizes’ the cost and incentivizes companies to innovate and adapt.

• Increased demand for example scrubbers lower their price and leads to innovation of better and cheaper options.

What are the Pros of a Resource Economy?

• 20% of Canada’s GP and 60% of our exports, 45% of manufacturing tied to resource processing.

1. Provides strong employment and tax revenues to fund programs

2. Attracts international capital, technology and expertise.

3. Technological innovations that can spill over into other areas.

4. Provides bargaining power in trade and negotiations.

What are the Cons of a Resource Economy? 

1. “Dependency theory” argues resource dependence limits industrialization and hurts overall economic development. 

• Occurs due to “declining terms of trade” - because country exports lower value-added natural resources and imports more expensive manufactured goods. (Core- Periphery)

2. Price of natural resources (“Commodity prices”) are global and fluctuate a lot.

• Can lead to Boom and Bust economy.- Makes environmental protection more difficult due to short-term trade-off between economy and environment.

How is environmental law structured in Canada? 

• Environmental and resource politics can be ideological AND regional. 

• Federalism and the Constitution: 

• Constitution: 1. establishes the structure of governments, 2. the different levels of government. 

  • Limits on government power.

What are the 3 types of Constitutional limits?

1. CCRF: 

• Government can’t violate Charter rights.

2. Federal-Provincial Division of Powers 

• Sets out what powers/jurisdiction each level of government has. Laws passed outside jurisdiction can be declared unconstitutional.

• “Environment” not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution.

• Both levels have powers that relate: Fed: POGG, pollution, taxation, coasts/offshore/fisheries, indigenous, criminal law, international agreements, nuclear. Prov: provincial resources and pollution, municipalities, taxation of resources, matters merely local in nature.

3. Indigenous Treaty Rights:

• “Duty to consult and accommodate”

• “Free Prior and Informed Consent”

What are the effects of the “Duty to consult and accommodate”?

• Can often lead to benefit agreements 

• Two Main Types of Benefit Agreements: 

1. Impact Benefit Agreements (IBAs)- with companies and often confidential

2. Resource revenue sharing agreements- with governments 

What has federalism done in resource politics?

• Western alienation.

• Conflict over oil is a big part of that.

• 1980 the National Energy Program (NEP) made Albertan oil cheaper and increased federal taxes on it.

• Caused immense friction.

What is Dutch Disease?

• Boom in a specific sector, like oil, causes the nation’s currency to appreciate, leading to the decline of other sectors like manufacturing.

• For oil, oil price rise, we export more, money flows in and pays for/develops oil —→ currency value rises, our exports are priced higher and therefore there’s a decline.

What is the “Alberta Advantage”?

• Tax competition- AB can pay for government spending with oil revenues.

• This allows them to have lower/corporate/income taxes than other provinces.

• This attracts firms and higher earners away from other provinces.

What is the further affect of the National Energy Program? 

• Growth of climate policies has led to further conflict and western alienation. 

• 2008 election- Liberal leader Stephane Dion proposed “Green Shift: Carbon Tax” — heavily opposed. 

• Conflict over equalization payments. Views that these provinces are the most anti-oil.

• Trudeau election in 2015 brought strong commitment to climate action- fueled Alberta (sub)nationalism

What are the forms of Albertan (Sub)nationalism?

1. Separatist Movement:

• 2019, “Wexit Alberta” was formed.

• Key current group is the Alberta Prosperity Project which has a petition to hold a referendum

2. Sovereignty Demands:

• 2023, Premier Danielle Smith passed the “Alberta Sovereignty Within a United Canada Act”

• Claims it allows provinces to not enforce certain fed laws/policies.

• Focused specifically on Liberal environment policies.

2025 Election- Consequences

• Trump, Trudeau leaving, Carney winning the election.

• Conservatives raised prospect of national unity crisis.

• Conservative politicians and media argued for pro-oil policies to prevent AB separatism.

• Smith ramped up pressure- issued demand of Fed environmental policies, and making referendum easier.

Explain Liberalism

• Centre-left approach 

• Supports: 

  • Capitalist market economies.

  • Government intervention to regulate business and reduce inequality.

  • International cooperation and institutions.

• Supported by:

  • Liberal Party Canada

  • Moderate Democrats

What are the Liberal Party Factions? 

1. Social/Progressive Liberals: 

• Trudeau. Guilbeault. Very PRO Climate action

2. Business/Blue Liberals

• Carney, Champagne

Explain Progressivism 

• Left-wing approach 

• Supports: 

  • More critical of capitalist market economy. 

  • Supports even more government intervention than liberals to promote social justice. 

• Supported By:

  • NDP and Green Party

  • Progressive Democrats- the Congressional Progressive Caucus, or Democratic Socialist.

What are the NDP Factions? 

1. Urban Progressives 

• Jugmeet Singh

• Very pro climate action

2. Blue Collar NDP 

• Charlie Angus

• Balance climate and resource jobs- NDP voters turned Conservatives resided here.

3. Socialist Caucus 

• Avi Lewis

• Anti-Capitalist 

• Ver pro-climate action- step further than Democratic Socialists. 

Explain Conservatism. 

• Centre-right approach. 

• Supports: 

  • Very free market economies

  • lower taxes, less redistribution, fewer regulations on business.

  • trade but NOT international institutions

• Supported by:

  • Conservative Party

  • People’s Party of Canada

  • US Republican Party

What are the Conservative Factions? 

1. True Blue Conservatives 

• Largest and most dominant (Harper, Poiliever)

• Fusion of free market libertarians + pro-defense neoconservatives.

• Strong free market, anti-tax, anti-regulation, pro-resource(oil)

2. Progressive Conservatives 

• AKA “Red Tories”

• Moderate Conservatives- like Blue Liberals- Balance Climate and Business

• Former Progressive Conservatives Party - PM Mulroney

3. Populist and Social Conservatives 

• Most Conservative

• Christian conservatives, similar to People’s Party and Trump Republicans.

• Rural-Urban divide and environmental policies as threat to rural resource jobs/God’s will.

Bill C-48

• Trudeau 

• Oil Tanker Moratorium Act

• Bans oil tankers above a certain size from the coast of northern BC. 

• Prevents the Northern Gateway pipeline from Alberta 

Kinder Morgan’s Trans Mountain Pipeline.

• Trudeau Gov purchased it for $4.5 billion

• Started operation 2024 and has tripled pipeline’s capacity.

Bill C-69

• Trudeau’s Impact Assessment Act

• Requires environmental/local/Indigenous impact assessments for resource projects.

• Critics call it “no-more-pipelines Bill”

• SCC ruled much of it is provincial jurisdiction.

2030 Emissions Reduction Plan. 

• Sector-by-sector plan to reduce carbon emissions 

• Target of: 

  • 40% below 2005 levels by 2030

  • net zero (Carbon neutrality) by 2050

• Proposed oil & gas sector emissions cap

Proposed “Oil and Gas Sector Greenhous Gas Emissions Cap Regulations”

• Oil and Gas accounts for over 30% of Canadian emissions. 

• This would cap the total amount of emissions a sector can emit. 

• Would also create a cap-and-trade system where slower firms could buy “carbon offsets: for up to 20% over the cap

• Strongly opposed by Oil and Gas, Alberta Gov and Conservatives. “Production Cap” 

Bill C-50

• 2024 Sustainable Jobs Act

• Based on the concept of “Just Transition” - how to reduce opposition and make it genuinely fair.

• Commits the Federal Government to provide new skills training and income support for oil and gas workers.

• Strongly opposed by Oil and Gas, AB government, conservatives.

Bill C-226

• National Respecting Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice Act.

• Requires government to collect data and develop strategies based on the concept of environmental racism.

• when racialized groups experience higher levels of pollution/climate impacts.

2025 Clean Electricity Regulations

• Starting in 2035, increasing cap on carbon emissions electricity generators. 

• Net zero electricity grids by 2050. 

• Opposed by Conservative premiers and challenged in court by Alberta.  

Net Zero Vehicle Mandate

• requires all sales of new vehicles after 2035 to be zero emissions

• Supported by:

  • Regulations on Car sales

  • EV infrastructure subsidies

  • EV subsidies for consumers.

Carbon Tax: The Greenhous Gas Pollution Pricing Act

Two Parts: 

• Consumer Carbon Tax on fossil fuels (gas, home heating)

  • “Revenue neutral”- revenue returned to consumers through quarterly rebate cheques.

  • The amount is fixed based on income level, even if you reduce emissions.

• Industrial Carbon Tax- “Output-Based Pricing System”

  • Requires provinces to set a price on carbon emissions by industry or federal imposed Carbon Tax 

What was the environment movement like before the 1960s? 

• Environmental concerns mainly focused on local conservation, focused on cosmetic issues such as litter, parks, and wildlife/habitat protection. 

• Conservation groups were mainly apolitical- run by upper middle class people. 

What is Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring?

• 1962 , referring to the fact that the sounds of spring were becoming less and less.

• Mainly on the environmental and health impacts of pesticides such as DDT.

• Sparked the modern environmental movement, conservation —→ pollution/health/resource limits.

What was the environmental movement like in the 1960s?

• Context of progressive activism and mass protests.

• Borrowed activist tactics from:

  • Peace/Anti-Vietnam/Anti-Nuclear movement

  • Civil rights

  • Women’s movement

What were the key environmental groups and what did they want?

• Sierra Club, WWF, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace.

• Wanted government regulation to stop corporate pollution.

• Greenpeace used stunts and protests.

• Environmental movement became linked with progressive activism. 

What is “Limits to growth”?

• 1970s, Neo-Malthusian notion that population growth and resource depletion meant Earth was reaching its “carrying capacity” and headed for crisis.

• Popularized by The Population Bomb and The Limits to Growth Report.

• Was strongly opposed by business, labor, developing countries.

What was Government and International Agency response to “Limits to growth”?

• Limits to growth lost support, BUT environmentalism surged.

• 22 Apr 1970, the first Earth Day.

• Governments responded by creating environmental departments/laws.

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

  • Environmental Canada

What was the 1972 Stockholm Conference? 

• UN Conference on the Human Environment 

• First international conference on the environment. 

• Stockholm Declaration: 26 principles, became the basis for many national environmental laws. Created the UNEP, rejected “no-growth” favored balance. 

What was the 1987 Montreal Protocol?

• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

• Countries agreed to set schedule to phase out CFCs and related chemicals.

• One of the most successful global environmental treaties.

What was the 1987 Brundtland Report?

• Our Common Future by the UN’s World Commission on Environment and Development.

• Created the concept of “Sustainable Development”

• Emphasis on overconsumption in the North and underdevelopment in the South.

• Overconsumption reduced through efficiency, not sacrifice

• Overpopulation reduced through development, not population control.

What was the 1988 IPCC? 

• Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) by UNEP and World Meteorological Organization

• Provides annual updates on climate change progress, causes, project impacts. 

• Good for climate negotiations. 

What was the 1991 Canada-US Acid Rain Treaty?

• Canada-US Air Quality Agreement- deal with acid rain which hurt crops, forests, Great Lakes etc.

• Primarily caused by US factory air pollution.

• Key example of interjurisdictional environmental problem. Successful.

• Implemented by Moderate Conservatives- Bush and Mulroney.

What was the 1992 Rio Summit? 

• AKA the “Earth Summit” or “United Nations Conference on Environment and Development” 

• sought to build on 1972 Stockholm conference 

What was the Rio Declaration?

• 27 Principles to guide treaties and national laws including:

1. Right to Development

2. State sovereignty on resources

3. Shared responsibility and international cooperation

4. Polluter prays principles- the people making and consuming the product should pay not the countries that hot industries.

5. Precautionary principle

What is the Precautionary Principle?

• When there are threats of irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

What were the 1992 Rio Summit Outcomes? 

• Endorsed the “Forest Principles”- voluntary principles related to forests. 

• Signed “Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)- legally binding, limits species loss and equitable use of genetic material. 

• Signed UN Convention to Combat Desertification- legally binding 

• Agenda 21: Program of action on sustainable development, voluntary 

• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 

  • Discussed first 1990 IPCC report

  • Annual Conference of Parties negotiations. COP. 

What is COP?

• Conference of Parties, UNFCC’s first COP Berlin 1995 

• COP negotiations produced key agreements: 

  • 1997 Kyoto Protocol

  • 2015 Paris Agreement

What is the 1997 Kyoto Protocol? 

• First major international climate treaty

• Legally binding 

• Focused on emissions reduction targets for industrialized countries. 

• No targets for developing countries. 

What is the 2015 Paris Agreement?

• Legally binding

• Included industrialized and developing

• Industrialized countries would provide $100 B to South

• Target- limit temp rise to below 2 degrees rather than just reduce emissions

• Carbon neutrality by 2050

• Countries created Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) every 5 years to continuously improve.