Psych 111

Edward Jenner

Father of Immunology, discovered smallpox vaccine in 1796

Systematic Observation

observe, measure, and record phenomena in an organized manner

Testable Hypothesis

generate ideas and statements that are testable and allow for predictions.

Science is Democratic

science relies on debate, discussion, and strongest evidence in support of truth

Cumulative

discoveries must be shared and built upon

informed consent

research participants should know when they’re participating in research and what will happen to them in the experiment

confidentiality

information gleaned from an experiment should not be shared publicly unless the participant gives the okay.

Privacy

research should not be done in a private place unless the participant knows that the research is going on.

Benefits

potential benefits should outweigh potential risks

Deception

Some researchers need to deceive participants in order to hide the true nature of the study. This is typically done to prevent participants from modifying their behavior in unnatural ways.

Karl Popper

 introduced idea to refute popular ideas, ideas need to be falsified, some claims aren’t testable

Type I Error

False positive, scientist believes its correct but data shows it’s incorrect

Type II Error

false negative, data shows significant results but scientists read it as insignificant

Wilhelm Wundt

father of experimental psychology, experimental psychology lab should be paired with a classroom

William James

Father of American Psychology, proposed consciousness is ongoing and continuous.

Structuralism

Emphasizes individual parts of the mind and reducing the mind to its basic elements

Functionalism

Emphasizes the utility of the mind

John Watson

behaviorism

Gestalt Psychology

focuses on perception and how the whole was more than just the sum of all parts.

Case Study

learn about a specific population, person specific, teaches us about a specific individual and their experience

Cross Sectional

* study participants at one point in time


* Strengths: easier to collect data in an efficient, cost-effective manner
* Weaknesses: often harder to determine causality

Cross Sequential

* a mix of cross sectional and longitudinal 
* Strengths: easier to collect data than longitudinal design
* Weaknesses: often harder to determine causality

Longitudinal

* takes a long period of time, follow one study group and follow them for a number of years
* Benefits: gain lots of information
* Weaknesses: expensive and time consuming, people can drop out

Factors Affecting Mood

sleep, social, hormones, brain, diet, blood glucose

Exact Replication

Attempt to copy the scientific methods used in an earlier study in an effort to determine whether the results are consistent

Conceptual Replication

Attempt to copy the scientific hypothesis used in an earlier study in an effort to determine whether the results will generalize to different samples, times, or situations

Adoption Studies

focused on how environment affects individuals

Twin Studies

focused on how genetics affect individuals, keep environment as similar as possible

Experimental Design

Manipulates variables

Non-Experimental Design

passively observe and measure phenomena, identify patterns of relationships but can’t infer the cause

Ecological Validity

used to refer to the degree to which an effect has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life

Generalizability

refers to the ability to arrive at broad conclusions based on a smaller example of observations

Internal Validity

degree to which a study allows unambiguous causal inferences

External Validity

degree to which a study ensures that potential findings apply to settings and samples other than the ones being studied

Electronically Activated Radar

participants are equipped with an audio recorder that records ambient sounds

Day Reconstruction Method

used to obtain information about a person’s daily experiences without going through the burn of collecting momentary experience-sampling data.

Daily Diary Method

participants complete questionnaires 

Ambulatory Assessment

monitoring physiological reactions as people go about their daily lives. Assesses hormones

Replication

Protects against false positives, increases confidence that the result exists

Replication Crisis

when research fails to replicate findings. Without replicable findings, nobody will be able to believe in scientific psychology.

Nature

what you inherit naturally, or through genetics

Nurture

what you inherit by the way you’re raised

Heritability Coefficient

measures how strongly differences among individuals are related to differences among their genes, difficult to interpret

Ramon y Cajal

concluded that discrete individual neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system.

Camillo Golgi

discovered the Golgi-stained tissue

Neurons

sensory neurons convert information into electrical signals

Interneurons

process information from sensory neurons and other neurons

Motor Neurons

coordinate behavioral output

Glia

neuron support crew (forms myelin sheath, carries nutrition, etc.)

Astrocytes

carries nutrition from blood vessels to neurons, regulates ions, forms blood-brain barrier

Microglia

coordinate brain’s immune response, removes waste, removes cells

Oligodendrocytes

forms myelin sheath

Ependymal cells

acts as a cushion, creates cerebrospinal fluid

Nucleus

contains genetic information, directs protein synthesis, and supplies energy

Soma

maintains the cell and keeps neuron functioning efficiently

Axon

main source of output, carries action potential to other neurons

Dendrites

receive information and are the main source of input of the neuron

Myelin Sheath

allows signal and communication to travel between neurons

Nodes of Ranvier

helps speed up the electrical impulse along the axon

Action Potential

signal passing through the neuron

Threshold of Exaltation

signal gets transmitted once the threshold is hit

Brain Stem

involuntary “life support” (breathing, digestions, heart beating)

Cerebellum

coordinated movement, posture (& other cognitive processes)

Thalamus

subcortical structure, sensory and motor function, acts like a relay system for sensory information that goes to the cerebral cortex

Corpus Callosum

connects brain hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

Cerebral Cortex

much of our “thinking” (sensory, motor, decision making, planning)

Occipital Lobe

vision

Parietal Lobe

touch, attention, and processing of multiple senses

Temporal Lobe

hearing, memory, and processing of multiple senses

Frontal Lobe

motor execution, higher-order thinking (planning, speech, decision making)

Spacial Resolution

 how regionally accurate is the response, know where the response is

Temporal Resolution

 time related, know when the timing happens

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

* __Radioactive tracers__ in the bloodstream can measure density of other __proteins__
* Strength: used to image more than just brain activity
* Weaknesses: relatively poor temporal and spatial resolution, invasive

Electroencephalography (EEG)

* directly measures the brain’s __electrical activity__ with a cap full of electrodes, shows us what areas of the brain are active and inactive
* Strength: __great temporal resolution,__ not invasive
* Weakness: bad spatial resolution

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

* measures (changes in oxygen levels) brain activity via fluctuations in blood flow
* Strengths: decent spatial resolution, not invasive
* Weaknesses: not as good temporal resolution compared to EEG

Primary Motor Cortex

runs along the central sulcus and the gyrus toward the front of the brain

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

runs along the central sulcus and the gyrus toward the back of the brain

Limbic System

group of brain regions that are involved in memory processing and emotion

Hippocampus

central role in forming memories

Amygdala

processes emotions

Broca’s Area

 helps us produce language (Tan)

Wernicke’s Area

helps us understand language

Stress

the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are **appraised** as threatening or challenging

Cognitive Appraisal

personal or subjective interpretation made by an individual of a situation or stimulus in the environment

Stressors

events causing a stress reaction

Distress

stress effects from unpleasant and undesirable stressors

Eustress

the stress effects from positive events

General Adaptation System

1. General Alarm Reaction - initial reaction, adrenaline kicks in
2. Resistance - body gets used to stress
3. Exhaustion - body uses all its energy sources and immune system goes down

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

excessive worrying about many things and experiencing physical symptoms (muscle tension and fatigue)

Social Anxiety Disorder

total avoidance of, or great distress caused by, social situations

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

traumatic event that often leads to nightmares, flashbacks, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the event

Specific Phobia

irrational fear of a specific object or situation

Panic Disorder/Agoraphobia

unexpected panic attacks that can lead to avoiding places or situations

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

irrational obsessions (recurring thoughts) and/or compulsions (repetitive behaviors meant to reduce anxiety caused by obsessions)

Treatments for Anxiety

Medications, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive Reframing

helps us learn to change the way you look at a situation and manage stress level

Progressive Muscle Relaxation

tense muscle groups and then relax them

Mindfulness Meditation

grounding yourself and being aware of what’s around you

Oxytocin’s Role in Stress

encourages you to reach out to others for help

Acute Stress

Throws you off balance momentarily, comes quickly and unexpectedly