Psych: Chap. 8. Memory

memory

persistence of learning over time through acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time

recognition

identifying items previously learned

relearning

learning something more quickly when encountering it a second or later time

information processing model

• compares human memory to computer operations

• involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

the briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored and forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system

• includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

• involves newer understanding of short-term memory

• focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

• is handled by a central executive

• influences how information is encoded and retrieved

explicit memories

(declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing

implicit memories

(nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processing and bypass the conscious encoding track

automatic processing and implicit memories

• implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills and classically conditioned associations among stimuli

• information is automatically processed about

  • space

  • time

  • frequency

• effortful processing and explicit memories become automatic

  • with experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic

small capacity

george miller (1956). magical number 7: most people can story seven bits of information (give or take two)

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, it is a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

short duration

peterson and peterson (1959): in the absence of rehearsal, items persist in short-term memory for around 20 seconds

chunking

organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

hierarchies

organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

massed practice

a learning procedure in which practice trials occur close together in time, either in a single lengthy session or in sessions separated by short intervals

distributed practice

a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods practicing different activities or studying other material

spacing event

encoding is more effective when it is spread over time

• the spacing effect is one of psychology’s most reliable findings, and it extends to motor skills and online game performance

shallow processing

encodes information on a very basic level (a word’s letter) or a more intermediate level (a word’s sound)

deep processing encodes information semantically based on word meaning

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of two conscious memory systems

memory consolidation

neural storage of long-term memory

• sleep supports memory consolidation

retrieval cue

a prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall

priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

context-dependent memory

• recall of specific information is improved when contexts present at encoding and retrieval are the same

• in new settings, you may miss the memory cues needed for speedy recognition. Our memories are context-dependent and are affected by the cues we have associated with that context

state dependent

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

causes of forgetting

• encoding failure

• storage decay

• retrieval failure

• interference

• motivated forgetting

encoding failure

the inability to form a reliable memory trace for an experience, leading to a failure to recall it later

storage decay

the gradual loss of information from memory over time, as if the memory trace weakens and fades away

retrieval failure

the inability to access information that is stored in long term memory, even though the information is actually in present memory

proactive interference (forward acting)

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

• older memories make it more difficult to remember new information

retroactive interference (backward acting)

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

• new learning disrupts memory for older information

motivated forgetting

the process where individuals intentionally or unintentionally forget unwanted memories, often to avoid emotional distress or improve well being

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

• memories are constructed and capable of revision

misinformation effect

memory is corrupted by misleading information

loftus and palmer (1974)

• after exposure to subtly misleading information, people may confidently misremember what they’ve seen or heard

• loftus has shown how eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories after a crime or accident

source amnesia (source misattribution)

• faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned

• source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

suggestions that can improve memory

• rehearse repeatedly using disruptive practice

• make the material meaningful

• activate retrieval cues

• use mnemonic devices

• minimize proactive and retroactive interference

• sleep more

• test your own knowledge, both rehearse it and to find out what you don’t yet know