The Enlightenment
17th and 18th centuries - humankind in relation to government
Divine Right
church allied with strong monarchs, monarchs believed they were ordained by God to rule - people had moral/religious obligation too obey
Social Contract
Governments not formed by divine decree, but to meet social and economic needs
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
government should preserve peace/stability - all powerful rule, heavy-handed
John Locke (1632-1704)
Men are all born equal, mankind is good and rational - primary role of government was to secure and guarantee natural rights and revolting is justified if not
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
all men are equal, society organized according to general will of people - government is protection by community and both being free
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Espoused idea of religious toleration
Montesquieu (1689-1775)
separation of powers among branches of government
David Hume (1711-1776)
lack of empirical evidence casts doubt on religion
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
an “invisible hand” will regulate economy if it is left alone
Free market system (Capitalism)
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
women should have political rights, including voting and holding office
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
knowledge exists beyond what is deduced from use of only observation or only reason
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)
criminals retain some rights and state should not practice cruel punishment
Enlightened monarchs
Utilized ideas of tolerance, justice, improving quality of life
Neoclassical Period
Middle of 18th century - imitated style of ancient Greek/Roman architecture
American Revolution (1773-1781)
After British defeated France over American territory in Seven' Year’s War, Americans began revolting against British rulership until they eventually gained independence with aid from France
Laws Passed by British that Angered Americans
Revenue Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), Tea Act (1773) - intended to raise funds for British government
Boston Tea Party Event (1775)
Event that Started American Revolution - colonists dumping imported tea in harbour to protest Tea Act
Thomas Paine
wrote Common Sense, encouraging colonizers to form a better government than the monarchy
French Revolution
French civilians began revolting against poor French monarchial leadership, but had difficulty developing new systems of government on their road to independence
What caused French Revolution?
France was running out of money from monarch spending, wars, and droughts - Louis XVI proposed raising taxes to the Estates-General
Third Estate was facing being shut out of new constitution - formed National Assembly in 1789 and peasants stormed the Bastille shortly after
Estates-General
governing body infrequently called by the kings - three estates with representatives:
First Estate: clergy
Second Estate: noble families
Third Estate: everyone else
Declaration of the Rights of Man
adopted by National Assembly in 1789 and caused big changes in French government structure - Established a constitutional monarchy at first, but new constitution development led to the Convention being the new ruling body
France become a republic (led by Jacobins who later beheaded the king)
Committee of Public Safety
After French Convention threw out constitution again - enforcer of revolution and murdered any anti-revolution people
led by Maximilien Robespierre (beheaded in 1795 for another new constitution)
French Directory (1795)
another new French constitution - Built up military, with Napoleon Bonaparte as one of the generals
Napoleon Bonaparte
Overthrew the French Directory in 1799 and established the Napoleonic Codes
Recognized equality of men
Dissolved the Holy Roman Empire with French military
Power hungry and kept invading nearby countries
Defeated at Waterloo in 1813 and Congress of Vienna occurred to discuss what to do with France
Congress of Vienna (1813)
Determined that France should be maintained through a balance of power with other European nations
Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)
France enslaved many Haitians, who eventually revolted successfully, led by Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture
Jacques Dessalines, a former slave, became the first governor-general in 1804
Unrest in South America Over Spanish Colonization
Napoleon invaded Spain and appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte to the throne in South America
Colonists ejected French and appointed own leader in Venezuela, Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar
Established a national congress in South America (Venezuela) and eventually helped them declare independence from Spain in 1811
Opposed by Spanish royalists, who declared a civil war against him
Bolivar won eventually won freedom for Gran Colombia (Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela)
José de San Martin
Took command of Argentinian, Chilean, Peruvian armies, and defeated many Spanish forces to also declare their independence from Spain
Independence in Brazil
John VI of Portugal fled to Brazil when Napoleon invaded Portugal
His son Pedro became the emperor of Brazil and declared it independent with a constitution
Pedro’s son Pedro II took over and abolished slavery
Independence in Mexico
Priest Miguel Hidalgo led a revolt against Spanish rule in 1810, who was later killed by them
Jose Morelos picked up where he left off and independence achieved in 1821 - Treaty of Cordoba
Treaty of Cordoba (1821
Spain recognizing their 300-year-old control of Latin America was ending - Mexico gained independence, soon followed by the rest of Central America
Neocolonialism
independent nations still controlled for economic and political interests
Riches accumulated often stayed within wealthy landowning class
Mexican Revolution (1910-1917)
protest of neocolonialism - rejection of Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship to protest impoverished conditions of civilians
Resistance in Peru
Tupac Amaru II led revolt in Peru against Spanish occupiers
captured and executed, but inspired Latin American resistance movements and served as a symbol of liberation
Resistance in West Africa
Samory Touré established Islamic Wassoulou Empire in 1878, leading resistance against Frence
Eventually captured, but his legacy inspired local resistance to French colonialism
Resistance in Sudan
Muhammad Ali of Egypt invaded Sudan in 1819, so Muhammad Ahmad led the Sudanese Mahadists in a revolt against his colonial rule - ultimately ended by British intervention
Resistance in US
Sioux performed a sacred ritual, the Ghost Dance, on their reservation to resist against US government
US Army fired at Sioux and despite Sioux fighting back, 300 of them were killed
Industrial Revolution
New technologies caused an increase in manufacturing and agriculture causing many to flock to cities (Urbanization)
Began in Britain in 19th century - spread through Europe, Japan, US
Gave nations power to quickly exploit colony resources and be imperialists
New Advancements that Changed Production
Flying shuttle: sped up waving process
Spinning jenny: spinning vast amounts of thread
Cotton gin: invented by Eli Whitney - processed massive amounts of cotton quickly
Steam engine - Thomas Newcomer, James Watt
Steamship - Robert Fulton
Steam-powered Locomotive - George Stephenson
Telegraph: communication with great distances in seconds
Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell
Lightbulb
Internal Combustion Engine for cars
Radio
Charles Darwin
British scientist who proposed theory of natural selection and changed way people viewed existence of the world
How did factories speed of creation of product?
Interchangeable parts: machines could be replaces or fixed quickly
Assembly line: each worker had one small part in production - man became the machine
Working Conditions of Factories
Workers were overworked, underpaid, and working in unsafe conditions - child labour was common
Industrialism Causing New Social Classes
Aristocrats were those rich from industrial success
Middle class of skilled professionals
Huge working class
Karl Marx
Wrote The Communist Manifesto
Working class take over means of production and all resources would be equally
Marxism was foundation for socialism and communism
Luddites
European Marxist workers who destroyed equipment in middle of night to protest working conditions
Factory Act of 1883
Limited hours of each workday, restricted children from working, factory owners had to make conditions safer
Labour Unions
Living conditions improved - middle class became larger, public education increased, social mobility became more common
Nationalism Movement in Italy
Count Camillo Cavour named prime minister of Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel II who pushed for nationalism
after Giuseppe Garibaldi, another nationalist, overthrew other Italian kingdoms, a lot of Italy was unified in 1861
Nationalism in Germany
When Otto von Bismarck was elected as prime minister by the Emperor, he defeated Austria and engaged in the Franco-Prussian War to create the new German Empire
New emperor William II forced Bismarck to resign and built a huge military force
Nationalism in Russia
Alexander II began reforms in Russia - Emancipation Edict: abolished serfdom but had little effect
intellectual political group The People’s Will assassinated Alexander II over his ineffective leadership
Alexander III started Russification: all had to learn the Russian language and convert to Russian Orthodoxy
Nationalism
Desire of people of common cultural heritage to form independent nation-state/empires that protects their cultural identity