Treaties, Agreements, Conferences, Pacts

Treaty of Tordesillas

Agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe along a demarcation line. Spain gained most of the Americas, while Portugal received Brazil and lands in Africa and Asia. It reflected European efforts to control global exploration.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Ended the French and Indian War. France gave up nearly all its North American territories, Britain gained Canada and land east of the Mississippi, and Spain received Louisiana. This drastically shifted the balance of power in North America in Britain's favor.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

Ended the American Revolutionary War. Britain recognized U.S. independence and ceded territory stretching to the Mississippi River. It marked the official birth of the United States as a nation on the world stage.

Treaty of Greenville

Agreement between the U.S. and Native American tribes after the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Native groups ceded much of Ohio to the U.S., opening the Northwest Territory to settlement, while the U.S. promised goods and protection. It marked a turning point in U.S. expansion westward.

Jay's Treaty

Negotiated between the U.S. and Britain to resolve lingering issues after independence. Britain agreed to leave its forts in the Northwest Territory, and trade relations improved, but Britain kept restricting American shipping. It avoided war but angered many Americans.

Pinckney's Treaty

Agreement between the U.S. and Spain. It gave Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River and the right to deposit goods at New Orleans, while also setting a border with Spanish Florida. It boosted western farmers and trade.

Treaty of Ghent

Ended the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain. Both sides restored prewar boundaries, and no territory changed hands. Although the treaty did not resolve maritime issues, it ended fighting and paved the way for improved U.S.-British relations.

Rush-Bagot Agreement

Agreement between the U.S. and Britain to limit naval forces on the Great Lakes. It was one of the first steps in demilitarizing the U.S.-Canada border and marked improved relations following the War of 1812.

Adams-Onís Treaty

Agreement in which Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. and set the boundary between U.S. and Spanish territory in the West. It helped define U.S. borders more clearly and secured valuable territory for the U.S.

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

Resolved U.S.-Canada boundary disputes between Britain and the U.S., particularly over Maine. It also addressed issues of the slave trade and extradition. The treaty improved Anglo-American relations in the mid-19th century.

Treaty of Kanagawa

First treaty between the U.S. and Japan, ending Japan's long period of isolation. Japan opened two ports to American ships and agreed to supply them. It marked the beginning of Japan's engagement with the Western world.

Appomattox

Refers to the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the Civil War. It symbolized reconciliation and the Union's preservation.

Teller Amendment

Congressional resolution promising that the U.S. would not annex Cuba after the Spanish-American War. It reassured those concerned about imperialism but still left the U.S. heavily involved in Cuban affairs.

Treaty of Paris (1899)

Ended the Spanish-American War. Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for compensation. It marked the U.S.'s emergence as a global imperial power.

Platt Amendment

Provision added to Cuba's constitution under U.S. pressure. It limited Cuba's sovereignty, gave the U.S. rights to intervene in Cuban affairs, and allowed the lease of Guantanamo Bay. It demonstrated U.S. dominance in the Caribbean.

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

Agreement between the U.S. and the newly independent Panama. It gave the U.S. rights to build and control the Panama Canal in exchange for payment. The canal became a key part of U.S. global trade and military strategy.

Treaty of Portsmouth

Peace settlement mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt between Russia and Japan, ending the Russo-Japanese War. Japan emerged as a major power, and Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role.

Gentlemen's Agreement

Informal arrangement between the U.S. and Japan. Japan agreed to restrict emigration to the U.S., while the U.S. promised to address discrimination against Japanese immigrants. It reflected growing tensions over immigration.

Root-Takahira Agreement

Agreement between the U.S. and Japan affirming respect for each other's Pacific territories and support for the Open Door Policy in China. It temporarily eased tensions but did not resolve long-term rivalries.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Peace treaty between Germany and Bolshevik Russia during World War I. Russia exited the war, ceding vast territories to Germany. It allowed Germany to focus on the Western Front, though it was later nullified after the war.

Treaty of Versailles

Peace treaty ending World War I between the Allies and Germany. It imposed heavy reparations on Germany, redrew European borders, and created the League of Nations. Harsh terms fueled resentment that contributed to World War II.

Washington Naval Conference

International meeting aimed at reducing naval arms among major powers. Nations agreed to limit battleship construction and respect Pacific territories. It temporarily eased tensions and slowed the naval arms race.

Dawes & Young Plans

Programs to restructure Germany's reparations payments after World War I. They involved U.S. loans to Germany, which paid reparations to Allies, who then paid debts to the U.S. It highlighted global financial interdependence in the 1920s.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

International pact in which many nations renounced war as a tool of national policy. Although it had no enforcement, it reflected idealistic efforts to prevent another global conflict after World War I.

Munich Pact

Agreement between Britain, France, Italy, and Germany allowing Hitler to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. It was an act of appeasement that emboldened Hitler and is often cited as a failure to stand up to aggression before WWII.

German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union pledging not to attack each other. Secret protocols divided Eastern Europe, including Poland, between them. It cleared the way for Germany to invade Poland and start WWII.

Cash and Carry

Policy that allowed the U.S. to sell arms and supplies to Allies during WWII if they paid in cash and transported the goods themselves. It was designed to aid Allies while keeping the U.S. officially neutral.

Destroyers for Bases

Agreement in which the U.S. gave Britain naval destroyers in exchange for leases on military bases in the Western Hemisphere. It strengthened Britain during WWII before the U.S. formally entered the conflict.

Lend-Lease

Policy authorizing the U.S. to supply arms, food, and equipment to Allied nations during WWII. It marked the end of U.S. neutrality and made the U.S. the "arsenal of democracy."

Atlantic Charter

Statement by Roosevelt and Churchill outlining Allied goals for WWII, including self-determination, free trade, and collective security. It laid the foundation for the United Nations.

Casablanca Conference

Meeting of Allied leaders Roosevelt and Churchill during WWII. They planned the next phase of the war, including the invasion of Italy, and declared that Axis powers must accept unconditional surrender.

Cairo Conference

Meeting of Allied leaders Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek. They pledged to continue fighting Japan, strip Japan of its conquests, and grant independence to Korea.

Teheran Conference

First meeting of Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin during WWII. They planned the D-Day invasion and discussed postwar strategy, strengthening cooperation among the Allies.

Yalta Conference

Meeting of the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) near the end of WWII. They agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupation, establish the United Nations, and demanded Japan's unconditional surrender.

Potsdam Conference

Meeting of Allied leaders Truman, Churchill/Attlee, and Stalin after Germany's surrender. They issued a warning to Japan to surrender and outlined postwar order in Europe, including trials for war criminals.

Marshall Plan

U.S. economic recovery program that provided billions of dollars to rebuild Europe after WWII. It aimed to stabilize economies, prevent the spread of communism, and strengthen democratic governments.

NATO

Military alliance among the U.S., Canada, and Western European nations. It pledged collective defense against aggression, especially from the Soviet Union, and became a cornerstone of Cold War security.

Geneva Accords

International agreement that temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with elections planned to unify the country. The elections never occurred, setting the stage for the Vietnam War.

SEATO

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, a U.S.-led alliance created to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. It included several Asian and Western nations but had limited effectiveness.

Warsaw Pact

Soviet-led alliance of Eastern European nations in response to NATO. It formalized military cooperation among communist states during the Cold War.

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, a cartel of oil-producing nations that coordinated production and pricing. It gained influence in the 1970s with oil embargoes and price controls.

Alliance for Progress

U.S. program under President Kennedy providing economic aid to Latin America. It aimed to promote development and prevent the spread of communism but had limited success.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Congressional resolution giving President Johnson broad authority to conduct military operations in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war. It escalated U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.

SALT I

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty between the U.S. and USSR. It limited certain nuclear weapons and was a step toward easing Cold War tensions.

Paris Accords

Agreements that ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. They established a ceasefire, withdrawal of U.S. troops, and prisoner exchanges, though fighting continued in Vietnam afterward.

Camp David Accords

Peace agreement brokered by President Carter between Egypt and Israel. Egypt recognized Israel, and Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula. It marked a breakthrough in Middle East peace efforts.

START

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty between the U.S. and USSR. It aimed to reduce and limit nuclear weapons stockpiles, continuing arms control efforts at the end of the Cold War.

NAFTA

North American Free Trade Agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. It created a free trade zone, eliminating most tariffs and promoting economic integration in North America.