Unit 4 Vocabulary

Sensation and Perception, Thinking and Intelligence, Memory

sensation

process of detecting, converting, and transmitting raw sensory information from the external and internal environments to the brain

perception

process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory info

bottom-up processing

top-down processing 

usually when there is not enough info, need to make a quick decision, based on experience and expectation

selective attention

paying attention to a certain thing

inattentional blindness

failure to notice

cocktail party effect

ability to focus listening attention on a single talker among background noise

change blindness

failure to notice obvious change

transduction

conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential

absolute threshold

minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for stimulus to be detected 50% of the time

just noticeable difference

how much difference in stimuli is required to detect a difference between them

sensory adaptation

senses become less responsive to a constant stimulus over time

signal detection theory

ability to identify a stimulus when it is embedded in a distracting background

depth perception

ability to perceive the relative distance of objects in one’s visual field

retinal disparity

the slightly different images received by each eye

convergence

rotation of the eyes inward towards a light source so the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas

relative clarity

• depends on atmospheric conditions

• nearer objects are more clear

• distant objects are less distinct (appear bluer)

relative size

• separate objects seem to be the same size

• BUT! larger ones seen as closer

texture gradient

• progressive decline in resolution of textures as viewer moves away from them

linear perspective

• principle that size of object’s image is a function of its distance from the eye

• this makes 2 objects appear closer together as the distance from them increases and appear to converge on the horizon

interposition

• 2 objects are in the same line of vision

• closer object, which is fully in view, partly covers the farther object

proximity

when objects placed together, the eye perceives them as a group

similarity

when objects look similar to one another, the eye perceives them as a group or pattern

closure

when an object is incomplete or not completely enclosed

levels of processing

theory emphasizes the new degree to which new material is analyzed

prototype

first concept of something that comes along

assimilation

having the same schema

accommodation

does not fit into the schema anymore

amplitude

distance from center line to the top or bottom point

wavelength

length of a wave from one peak to the next

frequency

number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period, expressed in hertz (Hz)

cornea

transparent covering over the eye, involved in focusing light waves that enter the eye

pupil

small opening at that allows light to pass

iris

control/connected to muscles that control pupils size, colored part of the eye

lens

curved, transparent, helps provide extra focus

fovea

where the lens focuses images onto small indentation in the back of the eye

retina

light-sensitive lining of the eye

cones

special type of photoreceptors that work best in bright light conditions

rods

special photoreceptors that work well in low light conditions

algorithm

every possible option, solution guaranteed, step-by-step plan, takes time

heuristic

shortcut, solution not guaranteed

representative heuristic

mental shortcut that involves judging whether something belongs to a given class on the basis of its similarity to other members of that class (stereotypical)

availability heuristic

mental shortcut in which judgments are based on information that is most easily brought to mind (immediately)

optic nerve

carries visual info from the retina to the brain

blind spot

even when light is focused on it, it is not seen

trichromatic theory

all colors in the spectrum can be produced by mixing red, blue, and green

opponent process theory

color is coded in opponent pairs (black-white, yellow-blue, green-red)

afterimage

continuation of a visual sensation after removal of stimulus

depth perception

ability to perceive spatial relationships in 3D space

binocular cues

relying on the use of both eyes

binocular/retinal disparity

difference between images seen by left and right eye

monocular cues

only need one eye to see something

mental set

temporary readiness to perform certain functions that influences the response to a situation/stimulus

fixation

preoccupation with a single idea

cognitive dissonance 

the stress that results when a person holds 2 or more conflicting values

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

framing

process of defining the context surrounding a problem, question, or event, in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived/evaluated

gambler’s fallacy

mistaken belief held by some people that independent events are interrelated 

sunk-cost fallacy

tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested money, time, or effort

divergent thinking

creative thinking where one solves a problem or reaches a decision using strategies that come from commonly used or previously taught strategies 

convergent thinking

critical thinking where one uses logical steps to analyze a number of already formulated solutions to a problem to determine the correct one

functional fixedness

inability to consider a new function for an item

cognition 

thinking, and it encompasses processes associated with knowledge and perception

concepts

categories/groupings of linguistic information and ideas

natural concepts

created naturally through experience, can be developed from direct or indirect experiences

artificial concept

defined by a specific set of characteristics

schema

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

role schema

makes assumptions about how an individual in certain roles will behave

event schema

set of behaviors that can feel like a routine

trial and error

continue trying different solutions until problem is solved

anchoring bias

tendency to focus on one particular piece of info when making decisions or problem solving

confirmation bias

focuses on info that confirms existing beliefs 

hindsight bias

belief that the event just experienced was predictable

representative bias

making a decision based on perceived similarity to existing stereotypes or prior beliefs

encoding

translating sensory stimuli into neural coding that can be stored

storage

retaining neutral coded info over time

retrieval

recovering info from memory storage

automatic processing

big event happens and is just stored immediately

effortful processing

learn and thinking, connecting to what you already know

self-reference effect

tendency for one to have