AP Bio (Ch 1-4)

reductionism

taking complex things and making them smaller and easier to study

emergent properties

properties that occur as the result of various system components working together, not as a property of any individual component

genomics

study of set of genes in one or more species

systems biology

exploration of biological systems and the interactions between them

eukaryotic cell

membrane-enclosed organelles and bigger cells (animals and plants)

prokaryotic cell

membrane but no organelles; DNA floating around (bacteria and arachea, single celled)

gene expression

process by which information from a gene is used to produce a functional product, usually a protein or sometimes RNA

genome

entire set of genes in organism; blueprint

producers

make own food and energy (plants)

consumers

use energy from others sources (animals)

negative feedback regulation

response reduces the initial stimulus ( glucose levels and insulin)

positive feedback

when end product speeds up production (clotting of blood; platelets attract more platelets to aggregate at the site)

evolution

present organisms descended from common ancestors; two species share certain traits due to common ancestors yet have differences due to natural selection

three domains of life

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

bacteria

prokaryotic, diverse, widespread

archaea

prokaryotic and live in extreme environments

eurkarya

plants, fungi, animals, and protists

natural selection

those with better traits and adaptions (small differences within population) tend to survive and pass down their adaption to next generation; how organisms change over time to survive environments

descent with modification

similarities between species that came from common ancestors yet differences due to modification that developed when they diverged/natural selection

inductive reasoning

general conclusion from specific observations

deductive reasoning

use general conclusion to figure out something specific (if all and this is all, then this …)

independent variable

variable being manipulated

dependent variable

whats being measured

absorb energy

to move shell farther from nucleus

lose energy

when electron moves closer to nucleus

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen

4 elements that make up 95%

excited state

electrons absorb energy and jump to farther orbitals and is unstable

grounded state

electrons are in lowest energy level and most stable

isotope

different atomic form of element where amount of neutrons is different

radioactive isotopes

isotopes where the nucleus decays, giving off energy

radioactive tracers

allows isotopes to be tracked through systems which is helpful in metabolism studies and PET scans

radiometric dating

isotopes decay at constant rate allowing scientists to understand half life and age of sample (age of fossils and organisms)

nonpolar covalent bond

atoms share equally

polar covalent bond

one atom is more electronegative, so electrons not shared equally; causes partial charges on either side

cation

loses electron and has positive charge (more protons than electrons)

anion

gains electrons and has negative charge (more electrons than protons)

hydrogen bond

when a hydrogen atom

covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is

also attracted to another electronegative atom

Chemical equilibrium

reached when the forward

and reverse reactions occur at the same rate

water (h2o)

strong polarity allows it to create hydrogen bonds

water properties

cohesion, moderate temperature, expansion when freezing, and universal solvent

cohesion

due to strong hydrogen bonds, water sticks together

adhesion

attraction between water and different substance

surface tension

how hard it is to break a liquid’s surface

specific heat

amount of heat absorbed in order to change it temperature by 1 C; water’s high allows for temperature moderation

evaporative cooling

when lqiuid evaporates, the rest of the surface cools down

hydration shell

when ion is in water, water molecules form a shell which helps the ion dissociate

hydrophilic

affinity for water

hydrophobic

no affinity for water (oil=nonpolar; allowing oil not to mix with water)

Hydrocarbons

with only carbon and hydrogen

Isomers

compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties

structural isomers

different covalent bonds arrangements

cis and trans isomers

same covalent bonds but different spatial arrangements (cis same side) trans (diagonal sides)

enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other (dextro and lero)

functional groups

components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions

hydroxyl group

-OH; polar due to electronegative oxygen; forms hydrogen bonds with water, ALCOHOL

carbonyl group

CO (double bonded); ketones and aldehydes

Carboxyl group

-COOH; acts as an acid; acetic acid (vinegar)

amino group

-NH2; acts as a base; amine; protein chains

Sulfhydryl group

-SH; Thiols; stabilize protein structure

Phosphate group

-O(PO3)^-2; negative charge (DNA=negative), releases energy when attached (phosphate)

mehthyl group

-CH3; affects expression of genes/sex hormones; turns off gene,

ATP

adenosine trisphosphate; releases energy for cells to use; reacts with water

alkanes

hydrocarbon single bond

alkenes

hydrocarbon double bond

alkynes

hydrocarbon triple bond