AP Bio

Credits to MrLederer on Quizlet!

Nucleus

The nucleus is the positively charged core in an atom made up of neutrons and protons.

Isotopes

Atoms that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus are called isotopes.

Compound

A chemical compound is formed when two or more different types of atoms are combined in a fixed ration.

Chemical reaction

A chemical reaction describes a chemical change in which reactants react to form products chemically different from the reactants.

Chemical bond

The atoms of a compound are held together by chemical bonds, which may be ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or hydrogen bonds.

Ionic bond

An ionic bond is formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other. In this case, one atom becomes negatively charged and one atom becomes positively charged.

Ions

An ion is a charged form of an atom.

Covalent bond

A covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared between atoms and can be polar or non-polar.

Non-polar covalent

A non-polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally between the atoms.

Polar covalent :

A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared unequally - one atom attracts electrons more than the other.

Polar

A molecule is polar if it has partially positive and partially negative charged ends, such as water.

Hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular attractions that form when a hydrogen bond that is covalently bonded to one electronegative atom that it also attracted to another electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonds are individually weak but are strong when present in large numbers.

Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the tendency of water molecules to stick together and allows water to have a high surface tension.

Adhesion

Adhesion refers to the tendency of water molecules to stick to other substances, which accounts for the phenomenon of capillary action.

Capillary action

Capillary action is the ability of water, or other liquids, to travel against gravity in a thin vessel and accounts for the ability of water to rise up the roots, trunks, and branches of trees.

Heat capacity

: Heat capacity refers to the ability of a substance to store heat and is the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a substance by 1 degree. Water has a high heat capacity, allowing it to keep a fairly stable temperature in our bodies and in the environment.

Surface tension

: Surface tension is a property of water, due to the cohesiveness of its molecules, that allows things (sometimes organisms) to float and stride on its surface without sinking.

Acidic

A solution is acidic if it contains excess hydrogen ions. It will have a pH less than 7.

Basic

A solution is basic if it releases hydroxide ions when added to water. These solutions are said to be alkaline and are usually slippery.

Neutral

A solution is neutral, neither basic nor acidic, if it has a pH of 7.

pH scale

: The pH scale is a logarithmic scale to measure acidity, with 1 being most acidic, 14 being most basic, and 7 being neutral.

Carbohydrates

: Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in a ratio of 1:2:1.

Monosaccharides

: Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars which serve as an energy source for cells. The two most common monosaccharides are glucose and fructose.

Disaccharides

: Disaccharides are formed by two sugar molecules combining together through dehydration synthesis. An example of a disaccharide is maltose, make by linking two glucose molecules.

Polysaccharides

: Polysaccharides are made up of many repeated unites of monosaccharides, and is therefore a type of polymer. The most common polysaccharides are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Polysaccharides are often storage forms of sugar.

Glucose

: Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide and is a six-carbon sugar with the chemical formula C-6, H-12, O-6. Glucose comes in two forms: alpha glucose and beta glucose, which differ simply by a reversal of the H and OH of the first carbon.

Glycosidic bond

: A glycosidic bond is a covalent bond in which a carbohydrate binds to another group, which could also be a carbohydrate. A glycosidic bond is found between the two glucose molecules in maltose.

Dehydration synthesis

: Dehydration synthesis, or condensation, is the process by which two molecules come together by the loss of a water molecule, such as the forming of maltose from two glucose molecules.

Hydrolysis :

Hydrolysis is the opposite process of dehydration synthesis by which molecules are broken up by the addition of a water molecule, such as the formation of two glucose molecules from a maltose.

Polymer

: A polymer is a molecule with repeating subunits of the same general type, such as polysaccharides.

Starch

a polysaccharide of alpha glucose molecules bound together and is produced by most green plants as an energy store.

Cellulose

a polysaccharide of beta glucose molecules that is a major part of the cell wall in plants and is used to lend structural support.

Glycogen

is a multi-branch polysaccharide of glucose that is the main storage of glucose in the body.

Plastids

double membrane bound organelles that temporarily store starch in plants. Plastids include chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts.

Amino acids

organic molecules that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. Every amino acid has four parts: an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group.

Amino group

functional group and is found in organic compounds known as amines.

Carboxyl group

weak acids that are common in many organic molecules including amino acids and fatty acids.

R group

any group in which the carbon or hydrogen is attached to the rest of the molecule.

Side chain

another name for an R group, and is a group of atoms attached to the main part of a molecule and having a ring or chain structure.

Functional group

a distinctive group of atoms that play a large role in determining the chemical behavior of the compound they are a part of. In amino acids, functional groups include the carboxyl group and the amino group.

Dipeptide

When two amino acids join they form a dipeptide. In a dipeptide, the carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with the amino group of another amino acid.

Peptide bond :

A peptide bond is the bond between two amino acids.

Polypeptide

If a group of amino acids are joined together in a chain, the resulting organic compound is a polypeptide, which is the primary structure of a protein.

Protein

A protein is a polypeptide, a chain of amino acids, that twists and folds on itself.

Lipid :

A lipid is an organic molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and includes fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are important because they function as structural components of cell membranes, sources of insulation, and a means of energy storage.

Fats :

A neutral fat is the simplest lipid and consists of three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol, also known as a triglyceride.

Oils :

Oils are a type of lipid and are triglycerides that are liquid.

Phospholipid :

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that contain two fatty acids tails and one negatively charged phosphate head. They are extremely important in their unique properties with regard to water.

Steriods :

Steroids are a class of lipids that have a basic structure of four linked carbon rings and include cholesterol, vitamin D, and a variety of hormones.

Neutral fats :

Neutral fats are non polar, uncharged triglycerides that have no acidic or basic groups.

Glycerol : Glycerol is a simple polyol (sugar alcohol) compound that is found in fats.

Ester linkage : The linkage formed between the glycerol molecule and the fatty acids in a fat is the ester linkage. This bond is formed through dehydration synthesis.

Saturated : If a fatty acid is saturated, it means it has a single covalent bond between each pair of carbon atoms.

Unsaturated : If a fatty acid is unsaturated it means it has adjacent carbons that are joined by double bonds instead of single bonds.

Polyunsaturated : A polyunsaturated fatty acid has many double bonds within the fatty acids.

Hydrophobic : A hydrophobic molecule is a molecule that does not mix with water because it is non polar, such as a fatty acids.

Hydrophilic : A hydrophilic molecule is a molecule that mixes with water because it is polar, such as a phosphate head in a lipid.

Amphipathic : An amphipathic molecule has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region, such as a phospholipid.

Nucleic acids : Nucleic acids are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. They are made up of simple units called nucleotides and include deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid.

Nucleotides : Nucleotides are simple units that make up nucleic acids. A nucleotide consists of a nitrogen base, a phosphate group, and a five carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose).

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) : DNA is a nucleic acid that has a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. DNA is important because it contains genes, and it is kept in the nucleus of cells.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) : RNA is a nucleic acid that has a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. RNA is important because it has an essential role in protein synthesis.

Miller and Urey : Miller and Urey were scientists who, in 1953, simulated the conditions of primitive Earth in a laboratory. They put the gases theorized to be abundant in the early atmosphere into a flask, struck them with electrical charges in order to mimic lighting, and organic compounds similar to amino acids appeared.

Heterotrophs: Heterotrophs are organisms that rely on organic molecules for food, also known as consumers.

Autotrophs: Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using solar or chemical energy, also called producers.

Cells: Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living organisms.

Eukaryotic cells: Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found in fungi, protists, plants, and animals.

Prokaryotic cells: Prokaryotic cells are small, simple cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, with DNA located in a region called the nucleoid.

Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a thick, jelly-like fluid inside cells composed of water, salts, and proteins that contains organelles and enzymes.

Organelles: Organelles are specialized structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific cell functions.

Nucleoid: The nucleoid is the region in a prokaryotic cell where circular DNA is located.

Flagella: Flagella are long, tail-like structures that help single-celled organisms and sperm move.

Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cell and controls what enters and exits.

Peripheral proteins: Peripheral proteins are proteins loosely attached to the surface of the cell membrane.

Integral proteins: Integral proteins are proteins embedded in the membrane that have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

Transmembrane proteins: Transmembrane proteins are integral proteins that span across the entire membrane.

Fluid-mosaic model: The fluid-mosaic model describes the flexible, varied arrangement of proteins and lipids in the cell membrane.

Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are membrane proteins that bind to signals or hormones from outside the cell.

Transport proteins: Transport proteins use ATP to actively move substances across the membrane.

Channel proteins: Channel proteins form pores in the membrane to allow specific ions or molecules to pass through.

Recognition and adhesion proteins: Recognition and adhesion proteins help cells identify and stick to one another.

Carbohydrate side chains: Carbohydrate side chains are sugars attached to membrane proteins on the cell's outer surface.

Cholesterol: Cholesterol is a steroid that stabilizes the fluidity of animal cell membranes.

Phospholipid bilayer: The phospholipid bilayer is the two-layer structure of the cell membrane made of phospholipids.

Chromosomes: Chromosomes are organized structures of DNA found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a dense area in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA and ribosomes are made.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are structures that build proteins and can be free-floating or attached to the rough ER.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): The ER is a system of membranes where the rough ER makes proteins and the smooth ER makes lipids and detoxifies.

Golgi bodies: Golgi bodies are organelles that modify, sort, and package proteins for transport.

Vesicles: Vesicles are small membrane-bound sacs that carry materials within or out of the cell.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are organelles that convert glucose into usable energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate): ATP is the main energy molecule in cells produced by the mitochondria.

Lysosomes: Lysosomes are organelles containing digestive enzymes to break down waste or damaged cell parts.

Centrioles: Centrioles are structures involved in organizing microtubules during cell division in animal cells.

Vacuoles: Vacuoles are membrane-bound storage sacs for water, food, and waste, especially large in plant cells.

Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that supports cell shape and helps in movement.

Microtubules: Microtubules are hollow protein tubes made of tubulin that aid in movement and cell division.

Microfilaments: Microfilaments are thin protein rods made of actin that help the cell move and maintain shape.

Tubulin: Tubulin is the protein that makes up microtubules.