Soci 101 Exam 2

Parallel realities

reflect that persons of color experience life differently than do white individuals 

Showing one’s color

• Showing anger in a loud and uncivilized way

• Often results in admonishment 

• Elicits others to engage in stereotyping

 color-blind society

where one does not see race

Assimilation

The process of foregoing one’s cultural traditions and replacing them with the behaviors and practices of the new dominant culture

Pluralism

The presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society 

Race

A group of people who share a set of characteristics, typically, but not necessarily, physical

Racism

The belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal traits 

Ethnicity

cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from another. Often voluntary, self-defined, and fluid.

Symbolic ethnicity

An alignment with a national identity yet without risk of stigma

“Optional Ethnicities”

• White people can:

1. Select a specific ethnicity 

2. Be “White” or American 

3. Choose any European ancestry 

Prejudice

thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group 

Discrimination

harmful or negative acts against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category 

Scientific Racism

19th century theories on race that coincide with a quest for explanations and classifications of race. 

Social Darwinism

The application of biological natural selection to explain social hierarchy. Those at the top are the “fittest” for the structure of society

Othering

Seeking to characterize a minority group as fundamentally different from the majority group. Establishing them as aliens or a threat.

Racialization

Formation of a new racial identity around a formerly unnoticed group of people.

Gailey Argues 

• Dull people are reproducing faster than bright people

• Intelligence is static 

• Policy decisions should be based on biological evidence 

• Average I.Q. scores of black persons are lower than those of white people

Ergo

Bright persons (white) should have more children. Policy should not be based on affirmative action (race) as that will lead to more problems.

Functionalist perspective on race issues

• social cohesion through shared values and beliefs (assimilation) 

• Cohesion does not always require losing one’s identity 

• Disagreement leads to social disorganization 

• Animosity between ethnic groups fuels, and is fueled by, prejudice and discrimination

Conflict perspective on race issues

• The power of a dominant group shapes ethnic and race relations

• Ethnic and relations are grounded in exploitation and oppression

• Ethnic and racial equality can only come through struggles over power 

• Equality in power leads to ethnic and racial equality; no guarantee of stability

Symbolic interaction perspective on race issues: 

• Race is a social construction 

• Racial categories come to shape social interactions and expectations 

• Possible routes to reduce tensions: 1.That which is learned can be un-learned 2. Focus on the roots of racial issues; how to reduce competition 

Gunnar Myrdal

• Differences in how blacks and whites prioritize issues of equality

• Whites tend to focus on keeping social distances but little concern toward economic equality 

• Blacks value economic and legal equality but care little about social distance

Doll study 

• Drs. Kenneth and Mamie Clark 

  • Conducted experiments to examine the effects of segregation on young children 

  • Conclude: Segregation internalizes a sense of inferiority among minority children 

De Facto Segregation

A subtle process of segregation other than from official policy; (housing, employment, etc.)

Systemic racism

racism that permeates systems of economy, education, criminal justice, political, medical/health, etc. Institutions

Race matters

the intersection of - race, educational opportunity, employment opportunity, accumulation of wealth, life expectancy

Ethnic sounding names are less likely to get called back: over all 14% less likely. Customer contact 28% less

White privilege

the uncritical acceptance of white skin

White denial

a lack of perception as to the existence of prejudice, discrimination, and racism in society

Manifest functions

overt or intended functions of an institution

• Developing a knowledgeable populace 

• Providing skills to participate in society 

• Assimilate to a national identity

Latent functions

covert or unintended functions of an institutions

Functional alternatives

different/similar social patterns and policies that provide positive functions without the dysfunctions

Herbert Gans: The uses of poverty (positive functions)

• Societies get rid of things that are not functional

• Why does poverty persist? It is dysfunctional for many people (the poor)

• It must perform some function for society 

• Gans argues that we can have functional alternatives 

• Concludes that these are not embraced as they would affect the non-poor. Therefore, poverty is for the benefit of the non-poor

Culture of poverty

the belief that poor people adopt certain practices that are different from those in the middle class

The underclass

The concept of persons unable to take advantage of what society offers. They become increasingly deviant and dangerous

Life chances

opportunities that can increase one’s social position are linked to the class into which you were born, geographic location, family ancestry, race, ethnicity, age, and gender

Social mobility

movement between different positions within a stratification system

Horizontal mobility

changing social status within the same class level

Vertical mobility

movement up, or down, the social hierarchy system 

• Peter Blau and Otis Duncan found the most mobility is horizontal 

• Rarely does vertical mobility jump class boundaries 

Functional aspects of stratification

• Certain tasks are vital for society 

• Vital tasks require specialization and receive greater rewards 

• Non-vital tasks receive low rewards as most anyone can fill those roles

Conflict theory

• Who benefits from the stratification of society?

• Wages and benefits are kept low through social policy 

• Competition for scarce resources (college education, jobs, etc.) lead to stratification

Class

derived from one’s economic resources; i.e. the credentials, qualifications, and skills that translate into income

Status (groups)

is the social honor and prestige that is accorded by other individuals. Status can be either positive or negative.

Cultural capital

 the cultural and social class resources that people inherit and learn to use to their advantage

Meritocracy

status and mobility based upon individual attributes, ability, and achievement

Elite-Mass Dichotomy

A system of stratification where a governing elite hold broad power over society

The (Vilfredo) Pareto Principle

80% of all effects come from 20% of all causes 

• Pareto argued that this ratio holds in nature and society 

• With regard to stratification - most all social advancement (economic and political) comes from 20% of the population

Max Weber

• Weber argues that power is the ability to exercise one's will over others 

This is accomplished through authority; the acceptance by people to follow specific procedures

Traditional

legitimized through long standing custom(s)

Charismatic

based on dynamic personality and personal qualities

Legal-rational

authority resides in the office and not the person

Total Institution

Highly regulated environments where individuals live and work under strict social and institutional control

Social integration

 the level to which one is connected to the social group or community

Social regulation

 the number of rules guiding your daily life. What you expect from the world on a day-to-day basis

Anomie

A sense of normlessness. A rapid shift in the expected rules of society (everyday life)

The normal and the pathological

• All societies have some form of crime 

• Crime is normal for a society 

• Crime is an affront to the common consciousness 

• Crime both reinforces and challenges the common consciousness (helping change social norms)

• Crime is healthy for society as it helps the society (norms) to shift, progress

• Lack of crime (deviance) stagnates the society and is therefore pathological  

Social deviance

any transgression of socially established norms

Social control

mechanisms that create normative compliance in individuals

Formal sanctions

social control through rules or laws that prohibit deviant or criminal behavior

Informal sanctions

social reactions to widely known, usually unspoken rules of social life

Robert K Merton

 Values and norms are known to everyone in society

Strain theory

argues that society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially accepted goals

Conformists

Accept   Accept 

Ritualists

Reject   Accept 

Innovators

Accept  Reject

Retreatists

Reject  Reject

Rebels

Reject  Reject (change the goals)

Deterrence theory

 the notion that crime results from a rational calculation of costs and benefits

“The gaze”

observation exposes unequal power relationships; those watching and those being watched 

• Foucault believed that discipline is more effective than deterrence 

• Those whole fall in-line are less likely to break the rules 

Jeremy Bentham

perfected a system that made monitoring and therefore discipline, more efficient 

Panopticon

observe all

Disciplinary Techniques

Modes of monitoring, examining, and regulating that are diffused throughout society. 

• The “gaze” expands to the workplace and shapes behavior 

The Saints and the Roughnecks

• Social class (status) impacts perception of deviant behavior by individuals 

• Differing responses to similar behaviors exposes power differentials in society 

• Social reactions to perceived deviant behaviors can impact life outcomes

Visibility

the saints engaged in their delinquency away from the community. The Roughnecks were limited in mobility

Demeanor

The saints were "respectful" when interacting with authorities. The Roughnecks were often hostile to authority.

Bias

The authorities and community in general labeled the Roughnecks as a problem. Roughneck members embraced this identity and acted accordingly.

Formal sanction

 Social control through rules or laws that prohibit deviant or criminal behavior

Informal sanctions

social reactions to widely known, usually unspoken rules of social life

Enthomedology

The study of everyday practices of people in creating their social world.

Primary deviance

The first act of rule breaking that may incur a label of “deviant”

Secondary deviance

subsequent acts of rule breaking that occur after primary deviance and can change people’s expectations of the individual

Social learning theory

 individuals learn to be deviant. Behaviors are learned through interaction  with others. The interaction teaches meaning and norms associated with the behavior.

Learning theory

Becker points out that one does not just become a marijuana user. There are a series of steps in the process: 

• Must know people who use

• Must learn how to smoke marijuana 

• Must learn to recognize the effects 

• Must learn to enjoy the sensation

Labeling theory

 individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them. Over time these labels form the basis of their self identity

• David Rosenhan shows us the social setting can shape how individuals interpret behavior

• Such interpretations can lead to stigma

Stigma

a negative social label that not only changes our behavior toward a person but also alters their own self-identity

Discredited stigma

A “mark” that is obvious and spoils one’s identity

Discreditable stigma

A hidden “mark” that has the potential to spoil one’s identity 

Jeffery Reiman

• The criminal justice system is like a conveyor belt:

  • Law enforcement makes decisions to intervene 

  • Prosecutors (the state) decide whether to take action 

  • Economic resources impact the ability to secure representation 

  • Quality of representation impacts the course of the prosecution 

  • Plea deals are cheaper, but admission of guilt 

  • Doing time adds to one’s record 

  • One’s record impacts job and life opportunities

Lee laccoa’s demand for the Pinto

• Less than 2,000 Ibs.

• Less than $2,000

• Design to production in less than 2 years. Most new cars required 4 years for the process

Issues with the Pinto

• Lightweight construction to keep cost down 

• Protruding bolts on differential housing 

• No protective shield for the gas tank

White Collar Crime

any offense committed by a professional against a corporation, agency, or other institution

• Embezzlement, fraud, price fixing, food/environment contamination, etc.

Uniform Crime Report

How the FBI tracks crime rates

Stipulation

a condition placed upon a business (low stigma)

Desist order

A stop action for violations of stipulations (low to moderate stigma)

Injunction

Command to not engage in an action (moderate stigma)

Restitution

restoring the original condition; fines and lawsuits

Retribution

exacting a punishment; incarceration

The myth of race (Omi and Winant)

the concept of race developed gradually and was created to justify and explain inequality and genocide that is characteristic of European colonization.

Stratification

the arrangement or classification of something into different groups

Collective consciousness (Durkheim)

the shared beliefs, morals, and values that form a society's social and moral framework

Crime as normal (Emile Durkheim)

crime is a normal and even necessary part of society because it helps to establish moral boundaries and can drive social change