Osmotic Regulation and Nervous System Organization

This set of flashcards covers key concepts and vocabulary related to osmotic regulation, the immune system, the nervous system, and the musculoskeletal system.

Osmoconformers

Organisms that maintain the osmotic pressure of their body fluids equal to that of their environment.

Osmoregulators

Organisms that actively regulate their osmotic pressure to maintain homeostasis, regardless of their environment.

Nitrogenous waste

Metabolic waste products containing nitrogen; examples include ammonia, urea, and uric acid.

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)

A hormone that helps the kidneys manage the amount of water in the body.

Adaptive immunity

A type of immunity that is specific to a particular pathogen and improves upon repeated exposure.

Epitope

The specific part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, particularly by antibodies.

Antigen

A substance that induces an immune response, typically found on the surface of pathogens.

MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex)

Molecules on cell surfaces that help display antigens for recognition by T-cells.

Antibody

A protein produced by B-cells that binds to specific antigens to neutralize or mark them for destruction.

Cytokines

Signaling proteins that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis.

Macrophage

A type of white blood cell that engulfs and digests cellular debris and pathogens.

Natural killer cells

A type of lymphocyte that plays a role in the innate immune response by killing cancer cells and infected cells.

Mast cells

Cells that release chemicals such as histamine during immune responses, particularly in allergic reactions.

B-cells

Type of lymphocyte that produces antibodies as part of the adaptive immune response.

T-cells

A type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity.

Passive immunity

Immunity acquired through the transfer of antibodies from another individual.

Active immunity

Immunity developed as a result of exposure to an antigen through infection or vaccination.

Allergies

Immune responses to harmless substances that are mistakenly identified as threats.

Autoimmune diseases

Conditions in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues.

Membrane potential

The difference in electrical charge inside and outside of a cell, critical for neuron function.

Resting potential

The electrical potential across the cell membrane of a neuron at rest, typically around -70 mV.

Graded potential

Changes in membrane potential that vary in size and can occur simultaneously, influencing action potential generation.

Action potential

A rapid, short-lived change in membrane potential that is a primary means of communication in the nervous system.

Electrical synapses

Connections between neurons that allow direct ionic transfer through gap junctions.

Chemical synapses

Connections between neurons that involve the release of neurotransmitters to propagate signals.

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials

Changes in membrane potential that bring the neuron closer to firing an action potential.

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Changes in membrane potential that make it less likely for a neuron to fire an action potential.

Spatial summation

The additive effect of simultaneous postsynaptic potentials from multiple synapses.

Temporal summation

The additive effect of rapid succession of postsynaptic potentials at the same synapse.

Peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system outside the central nervous system, involved in transmitting information to and from the CNS.

Motor nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary and involuntary movements.

Autonomic nervous system

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic division

Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic division

Part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and promotes resting functions.

Exteroceptors

Sensory receptors that detect external stimuli.

Interoceptors

Sensory receptors that detect internal body conditions.

Mechanoreceptors

Sensory receptors that respond to mechanical pressures or distortions.

Chemoreceptors

Sensory receptors that respond to chemical stimuli.

Electromagnetic receptors

Sensory receptors that respond to electromagnetic energy, such as light.

Nociceptors

Sensory receptors that respond to harmful stimuli, resulting in the sensation of pain.

Thermoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect changes in temperature.

Proprioceptors

Sensory receptors located in muscles and joints that provide information about body position.

Baroreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect pressure changes in blood vessels and help regulate blood pressure.

Hydrostatic skeletons

Support structures composed of a fluid-filled cavity surrounded by muscles.

Exoskeletons

Hard outer structures that provide support and protection; often found in arthropods.

Endoskeletons

Internal skeletons found in vertebrates that provide structure and support.

Tetanus

A sustained muscle contraction resulting from rapid stimulation.

Twitches

Brief and sudden contractions of muscle fibers.

Slow-twitch muscle fibers

Muscle fibers that are more resistant to fatigue and are suited for endurance activities.

Fast-twitch muscle fibers

Muscle fibers that provide quick bursts of speed but fatigue quickly.