psych 136 exam 2

Law of Effect

• a given behavior will have one of two types of outcomes (or consequences).

  “A satisfying state of affairs.”

  “An annoying state of affairs.”

  • relationship between response and outcome

behavior is a function of its ____________

consequences

operant chamber

created by B.F. skinner

operant conditioning

• Generally, does not involve reflexes.

• Consequences, or what happens after the behavior, influence behavior.

• More of an active phenomenon for the individual.

classical conditioning

• Involves reflexes.

• Antecedents, or what happens before the reflexes, influence behavior.

• More of a passive phenomenon for the individual.

positive reinforcement and example

• Behavior is followed by the presentation of a stimulus (a reinforcer) and the behavior is strengthened.

• You put your debit card in the ATM machine and enter your PIN. Money comes out of the machine

negative reinforcement

• Behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus (an aversive) and the behavior is strengthened

• If removing your ATM card from the chip-reader machine results in the termination of that annoying sound coming from the chip-reader machine, and this behavior is now more likely to occur in the future given similar circumstances

primary reinforcers and example

• Said to be naturally or innately reinforcing - consistent across members of a species

  • Not dependent on their association (i.e., conditioning) with other reinforcers.

  • Food, shelter, warmth when cold, etc.

secondary reinforcement and examples

• Dependent on their association with other reinforcers.

• Learned/conditioned.

• Generalized conditioned reinforcers

• weaker than primary

• ex:  comforting a baby, praising little kids, praising people in general, money

contingency affecting reinforcement

• Learning is most effective when reinforcement consistently follows each response.

• More occurrences = better

contiguity affecting reinforcement

• The time gap between behavior and its consequences.

• In general, the shorter the interval, the faster learning occurs.

• The quicker you reinforce a behavior the more likely the reinforcer will be effective

establishing operations affect on reinforcement

• Alters the effectiveness (or value) or a reinforcer.

• How much you want something and what you are willing to do to get it

reinforcer characteristics

• size matters

• not exactly linear

• quality of reinforcer

behavior characteristics

• qualities of the behavior will affect how easily it can be learned

previous learning

• cant eliminate learning

• all previous learning under similar conditions may affect learning

competing contingencies

• Other reinforcing contingencies.

• Punishing contingencies.

neuromechanics of reinforcement

• dopamine is released, increased

premack principle/relative value theory

• In any given situation, some behaviors are more likely to occur than others.

  • Each has a value (probability of occurring) relative to others.

  • a high probability behavior reinforces a low probability behavior.

The contingency square shows that there are _______________ operant procedures.

four

Operant learning is also referred to as _______________ learning.

instrumental

Positive reinforcement is associated with the release of ______________ in the brain.

dopamine

Charles Catania identified _______________ characteristics that define reinforcement.

three

According to the _______________-process theory of avoidance, the avoidance behavior is reinforced by a reduction in the number of aversive events.

one

Schlinger and Blakely found that preceding a reinforcer with a stimulus reduced the negative effects of _______________ reinforcement

delayed

The law of _______________ says that behavior is a function of its consequences.

effect

Thorndike's studies of learning started out as an attempt to understand animal _______________.

intelligence

Reinforcement is the procedure of providing consequences for behavior that increase or maintain the _______________ of that behavior.

strength

The opposite of a primary reinforcer is a _______________ reinforcer.

secondary/conditioned

shaping and example

• Reinforcement of successive approximations toward a target response.

• If bird turned a little to the side, skinner waited for pigeon to turn a little more to give food

chaining and example

• A series of behaviors performed in a particular connected sequence.

• teaching someone to tie their shoes

shaping vs chaining

Chaining is different from shaping because it involves a series of separate target behaviors instead of approximations to one target behavior.

reinforcement role in insightful problem solving

• A problem is a situation where reinforcement is available, but the behavior necessary to produce it is often not.

• Epstein’s experiment demonstrates that insightful problem solving is at least partially the product of an individual’s learning history.

reinforcement role in creativity

• The common feature of most definitions of creativity is novelty.

• Novel behavior is the product of a history of reinforcement for novel behavior.

reinforcement role in helplessness

• Exposure to inescapable aversives leads to learned helplessness.

• Learned industriousness (reinforcing persistence) may alleviate effects of helplessness.

reinforcement role in superstition

• Any behavior that occurs even though it does not produce the reinforcement that was coincidentally delivered afterward.

Karen Pryor trained porpoises to be more creative by reinforcing _______________ behavior.

novel/creative/original

In Harry _______________ research on problem solving in monkeys and children, insight was the gradual product of reinforcement.

Harlow’s

B. F. Skinner and two graduate students discovered shaping in the process of training a pigeon to _______________.

bowl

The children's game, "Hot and Cold," is different from shaping in that it includes _______________.

punishment

Coincidental reinforcement plays an important role in _______________ behavior.

superstitious

Martin _______________ and his colleagues discovered learned helplessness in research on Pavlovian escape conditioning in dogs.

Seligman

The research of Epstein and colleagues on problem solving in pigeons was analogous to Kohler's research on problem solving in _______________.

chimpanzees

Some studies have found that rewards can reduce _______________. Evidence suggests that the reason for this is that rewards are not contingent on creative behavior.

creativity

Research suggests that learned helplessness can be prevented through _______________ training.

immunization

Many predatory animals search for prey, stalk it, pursue it, kill it, and eat it. Such a sequence of events is called a _______________.

chain/behavior chain

fixed ratio

variable ratio

fixed interval

variable interval

Records the rate of response.

Cumulative record

Real-time graphical representation of operant rate.

x-axis: represents time.

y-axis: represents the total number of responses since the start of the session.

Response rate analyzed by the slope of the graph.

Continuous reinforcement (CRF) AKA Fixed Ratio 1 

• Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

• A continuous reinforcement schedule is ideal to implement when first teaching a child to identify letters.

fixed ratio

• Behavior is reinforced when it has occurred a set number of times.

• The number dictates the number of responses that must occur before reinforcement.

  • e.g., FR5: Every 5th response is reinforced.

• low resistance to extinction

• pay for assembling certain amount of products

variable ratio

• Behavior is reinforced when it has occurred a number of times that varies around an average.

  • e.g., VR5: On average, every 5th response is reinforced.

• high resistance to extinction

• slot machines

fixed interval

• Reinforcement is given for the first response after a set interval of time.

  • Need both passage of time and behavior of interest to occur

• scalloped responding

• lower resistance to extinction

• weekly assignments is an example

variable interval

• Reinforcement is provided for the first response after an interval that varies around an average.

• higher resistance to extinction

• checking email or social media

• constant/stable pattern

fixed time schedule

• Reinforcement delivered after a set interval.

  • Someone calling mother every week

variable time schedule

• Reinforcement delivered after interval that varies around an average.

  • Calling around every week

fixed duration

• Reinforcement is delivered contingent on behavior performed continuously throughout a set period of time.

variable duration

• Reinforcement is delivered contingent on behavior performed continuously throughout a period of time that varies around an average.

extinction as a process and effect on behavior

• Withholding the consequence that has previously reinforced behavior.

• Overall effect is to reduce the frequency of behavior.

• May initially result in:

  • an abrupt increase in the previously reinforced behavior and its intensity,

  • increased varied behavior, and

  • Increased emotional behaviors.

stretching the ratio

• Although dense schedules are often used in early acquisition, very lean (or thin) schedules can maintain a lot of responding.

• Often necessary to thin the schedule.

• Thinning the schedule must be done gradually.

  • Example: Going from continuous reinforcement schedule to fixed ratio 2 responses, to variable ratio 4 responses, to a variable interval schedule of increasing time periods.

ratio strain

• If the thinning of the schedule is too large, the behavior will extinguish

A schedule in which a behavior is never reinforced is called a(n) ______________ schedule.

extinction

Alan Christopher studied the role of intermittent reinforcement in compulsive _______________.

gambling

Stretching the ratio too rapidly or too far can produce _______________.

ratio strain

Ratio strain is associated with the procedure known as _______________ the ratio.

stretching

The _______________ hypothesis emphasizes the role of internal cues in explaining the PRE.

frustration

ratio strain

• If the thinning of the schedule is too large, the behavior will extinguish

A schedule in which a behavior is never reinforced is called a(n) ______________ schedule.

extinction

_______________ schedules produce cumulative records with scallops.

fixed interval

punishment

A decrease in the strength (or likelihood, occurrence, frequency, rate, etc.) of a behavior due to its consequences.

positive punishment

• Addition of a stimulus, following a behavior, that results in a decrease in behavior.

• Electric shock.

  • Presentation of shock.

negative punishment

• Removal of a stimulus, following a behavior, that results in a decrease in behavior.

• Time out.

  • Brief removal of preferred items or activities.

extinction as a process and effect on behavior

• Withholding the consequence that has previously reinforced behavior.

• Overall effect is to reduce the frequency of behavior.

• May initially result in:

  • an abrupt increase in the previously reinforced behavior and its intensity,

  • increased varied behavior, and

  • Increased emotional behaviors.

stretching the ratio

• Although dense schedules are often used in early acquisition, very lean (or thin) schedules can maintain a lot of responding.

• Often necessary to thin the schedule.

• Thinning the schedule must be done gradually.

  • Example: Going from continuous reinforcement schedule to fixed ratio 2 responses, to variable ratio 4 responses, to a variable interval schedule of increasing time periods.

contingency affecting punishment

• The probability that the consequence follows the behavior.

• The greater the contingency between a behavior and a punisher,

the greater the suppression of the behavior.

• Consistency with rule even if it is strict

contiguity affecting punishment

• The interval between behavior and a punishing consequence.

• The longer the delay, the slower the learning.

punisher intensity affecting punishment

• The strength or force with which a stimulus is delivered.

• The less intense the punisher, the less effective in suppressing behavior.

The best schedule for shaping new behavior is _______________.

continuous reinforcement

punishment

gambling

positive punishment

ratio strain

negative punishment

stretching

problems with punishment: escape

• A common reaction to punishment is to escape, or avoid, the source of punishment.

• Escape without actually fleeing.

• People “tune out,” or “close our ears” to repeated criticism.

• Escape  by cheating or lying

problems with punishment: aggression

• Instead of escaping or avoiding the punishing agents, individuals may punish others.

  • Criticize our critics.

  • Disparage those who disparage us.

problems with punishment: apathy

• If escape and aggression are not possible, an overall suppression of behavior can occur.

• Not just the punished behavior—all behavior.

ethical issues with punishment

• Debatable—should we use for very harmful or dangerous behaviors?

• If used, all positive strategies must be tried first

  • Punishment is a default strategy.

Positive and negative punishment are similar in that both ______ the strength of a behavior.

decrease

in positive punishment ______ in negative punishment ______

something is added, something is removed

negative reinforcement _______ strength of behavior, positve punishment _______ it

increases; decreases

Differential reinforcement is used in combination with extinction of the _______________ behavior.

unwanted

______________ is often an appropriate alternative to punishment, but it is often slow.

extinction

Positive punishment necessarily involves _______________.

aversives

Punishers are defined by their effects on _______________.

behavior

Negative punishment is also called _______________ training.

penalty

Differential reinforcement of _______________ behavior is the procedure of reinforcing behavior that cannot be performed at the same time as the unwanted behavior.

incompatible

One alternative to punishment is response _______________.

prevention

David Camp and his colleagues found that even a two-second _______________ in punishment reduced its effectiveness.

delay

Five problems are associated with punishment. One of those problems is _______________.

abuse

Punishment is often confused with _______________ reinforcement.

negative

The Kassinove and Schare (excessive gambling) study suggests that “near misses” can serve as ______.

reinforcers