AP Psych - Learning

associative learning

* learning that certain events can occur together
* can be two stimuli (**classical conditioning**) or a behavior + consequence (**operant conditioning**)

classical conditioning

* one learns to link 2+ stimuli and anticipate events
* ex. **Pavlov**

learning

relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior bc of experience

behaviorism

view that psychology should be (1) an objective science that (2) studies behavior __without__ reference to mental processes

unconditioned response (UCR or UR)

* unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
* ex. salivating when food is in mouth

unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

stimulus that automatically triggers a response

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to previously neutral (NS), but now conditioned stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association w/ unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that triggers no response

classical conditioning diagram w/ examples

acquisition

* in **classical conditioning** - initial learning, where one links neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus, so that UCS begins triggering CR
* in **operant conditioning** - strengthening of reinforced response

higher-order conditioning

* process where **conditioned stimulus** is paired w/ a new **neutral stimulus**, creates a second (often weaker) **conditioned stimulus**
* ex. an animal that learns that a tone predicts food may learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone

extinction

diminishing of **conditioned response**

* in **classical conditioning -** when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
* in **operant conditioning** - when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished **conditioned response**

generalization

the tendency for a similar stimulus to the **conditioned stimulus** to elicit a similar response

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a **conditioned stimulus** and stimuli that have not been paired w/ **unconditioned stimulus**

respondent behavior

actions that occur as an automatic response to a stimulus

operant conditioning

type of learning where behavior is strengthened if followed by **reinforcer** or weakened if followed by **punisher**

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

law of effect

**Thorndike's** principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

(also known as a skinner box), container w/ bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer

shaping

**operant conditioning** procedure where reinforcers guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of final desired behavior

reinforcer

something that strengthens/encourages a behavior

punishment

something that weakens/discourages behavior

positive

adding something

negative

subtracting something

positive reinforcer

* stimulus added after a desired behavior that strengthens response
* ex. of positive reinforcement - giving a kid candy after they do their homework

negative reinforcer

* stimulus that, when removed, strengthens response
* ex. of negative reinforcement - beep turns off after seatbelt is buckled

positive punisher

* stimulus added after a desired behavior that weakens response
* ex. of positive punishment - physical abuse as an attempt to discourage a behavior

negative punisher

* stimulus subtracted after a desired behavior that weakens response
* ex. of negative punishment - a time out (removing choice, attention, time) as an attempt to discourage a behavior

primary reinforcer

* innately reinforcing stimulus, often that satisfies a biological need
* ex. food, painful headache going away

conditioned/secondary reinforcer

* stimulus that gains it's reinforcing power through its association w/ a primary reinforcer, may have no value otherwise
* ex. money

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing desired response each time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

* reinforcing a response only sometimes
* results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

* reinforces behavior after a specified number of responses
* (ex. 1:1 \[1 occurrence of a behavior to 1 reward\], 3:1 \[3 occurrences of a behavior to 1 reward\])

variable-ratio schedule

reinforces behavior after an unpredictable and inconsistent number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

reinforces response only after a consistent time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

reinforces response after an inconsistant, unpredictable time has elapsed

cognitive map

mental representation of the layout of one's enviroment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

intrinsic motivation

desire to perform behavior for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

desire to preform behavior to receive reward/avoid punishment

observational learning

learning through the observation of others

modeling

observing and imitating a certain behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions/observing another doing so

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful, behavior

Ivan Pavlov

* physician/neurophysiologist
* studied digestive secretions in dogs
* **classical conditioning**

John B. Watson

* Together w/ **Rosalie Rayner**, trained "little Albert" to fear rats, using **classical conditioning**
* Also showed **generalization**, as Albert became afraid of white fuzzy things

Rosalie Rayner

* Together w/ John B. Watson, trained "little Albert" to fear white rats, using classical conditioning
* Also showed **generalization**, as Albert became afraid of white fuzzy things

John Garcia

studied taste aversion and nausea w/ Robert Koelling

Robert Koelling

studied taste aversion and nausea w/ John Garcia

Robert Rescorla

* Developed theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive processes in **classical conditioning**
* Said that subjects had to determine (think) whether **CS** was a reliable predictor of **UCS**

Edward L. Thorndike

* Named the **law of effect**
* Created puzzle boxes for research on cats
* **Operant conditioning**

B. F. Skinner

* Elaborated on **Thorndike's law of effect**
* **Skinner boxes**, pigeons
* Behaviorist

Edward Tolman

* Behavioral psychology
* Studied **latent learning** and **cognitive maps** using rats in a maze
* Critical of behaviorism

Albert Bandura

* Studied **observational learning**, consequences a model has on subjects
* Bobo doll experiments
* Studied delayed gratification w/ **Mike Mahoney**

Mike Mahoney

Studied delayed gratification w/ **Albert Bandura**