Psychology approaches

Behaviourist approach

Behaviourist approach

Assumptions of behaviourism

1. Behaviour is learned

2. Cognition is ‘irrelevant’

3. Environmental determinism

4. Animals and humans learn in the same way

Assumption 1 of behaviourism (behaviour is learned)

All behaviour is learned from experience.

We are essentially born as blank slates.

This is known as empiricism.

Assumption 2 of behaviourism (the mind is ‘irrelevant’)

Thoughts cannot be directly observed. The only measurable data we can gain is from observing behaviour.

Assumption 3 of behaviourism (environmental determinism)

Humans do not have free will.

Our behaviour is shaped by the environment around us. It is only changed by changing the environment.

Assumption 4 of behaviourism (animals and humans learn in the same way)

Both learn through simple stimulus-response associations. Therefore, animal studies can be used to make generalisations about humans.

What is classical conditioning?

Classical Conditioning is a learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov. It involves creating an association between a previously unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.

How does classical conditioning work?

A US is paired with an NS that naturally stimulates a UR.

The US then becomes a ‘CS’ after this association and it now produces the same response as the NS by itself.

Which study investigated classical conditioning?

Pavlov and his dogs. The dogs associated the sound of a bell with food and this caused them to salivate at the ring of a bell.

Strengths of classical conditioning

• There is research support that CC affects behaviour. (e.g. Watson and Rayner proved that CC could create phobias with the Little Albert experiment)

• CC has useful applications (e.g. systematic desensitisation)

Gilroy et al. conducted an experiment to evaluate the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for people with arachnophobia.

• Grp 1 received desensitisation therapy, whereas Grp 2 was a control group that had ‘relaxation without exposure’

• After both 3 and 33 months, grp 1 were found to be less fearful of spiders by use of a questionnaire.

What is extinction?

When a CS stops producing the CR.

Limitations of classical conditioning

• CC is a reductionist way of explaining behaviour because it places pure emphasis on behaviour being caused by stimulus-response associations. It fails to consider other factors that might affect behaviour, such as emotions, personality and biology.

• The methods used to research could be considered to be unethical (e.g. Little Albert).

Law of effect (basis for OC)

Behaviour that is followed by pleasant consequences becomes more probable to be repeated.

Behaviour that is followed by unpleasant consequences becomes less probable to be repeated.

What is a positive consequence?

A reward/punishment is given to the subject.

What is a negative consequence?

The subject is relieved of something jarring/enjoyable.

What is reinforcement?

Encouragement for a behaviour.

What is punishment?

Discouragement for behaviour.

Strengths of OC

• The methods used to test it were highly controlled and scientific and provided reproducible results that are externally valid such as Skinner’s box, where a rat would push a lever once it found out it would dispense food and then stop once it stopped dispensing the food

• It has useful real life applications (e.g. getting paid to work) that can also prove OC exists

Limitations of OC

• Some experiments on OC are done on animals (e.g. Skinner’s box with rats). This may limit the generalisation of results to humans because animals may learn at different speeds to humans.

• Methods could be unethical

Overall strengths of behaviourism

Behaviourism introduced an empiricist approach to psychology.

• This made psych more scientific and high in internal validity

• This allowed causal relationships to be established between stimuli and behaviour

Overall limitations of behaviourism

Behaviourism ignores free will. It is a deterministic approach.

• this suggests humans have no control over their actions so they may fail to take responsibility for their actions. This would also undermine criminal justice.

Furthermore, it is reductionist, as it fails to acknowledge other factors that can affect behaviour.

SLT

SLT

Assumptions of SLT

1. Modelling

2. Imitation

3. Identification

4. Vicarious Reinforcement

5. Mediational processes

Assumption 1 of SLT (modelling and the types of models)

In order for social learning to happen, a model has to demonstrate a behaviour.

There are two types of models:

• Live models - real people

• Symbolic models - fictional/famous characters (people you don’t know/see)

Assumption 2 of SLT (imitation and what determines it)

The behaviour that is presented by models can be observed and reproduced by people in a process known as imitation.

The key determinants:

• The characteristics of the model

• The individual’s ability to replicate the behaviour

• The possible consequences of such behaviour

Assumption 3 of SLT (identification)

Identification occurs when people feel as if they relate to a model - and will experience the same consequences in the observed situation

Children are more likely to identify with a model; particularly same-sex models

Assumption 4 of SLT (vicarious reinforcement)

An individual does not need to personally experience reinforcement/punishment for learning to take place.

They can just observe the consequences and make judgements based on the likelihood of them experiencing the same outcomes.

Assumption 5 of SLT (mediational processes)

These are the 4 cognitive mediational processes:

• Attention - observe the behaviour

• Retention - remember the behaviour

• Reproduction - can the individual reproduce the behaviour?

• Motivation - evaluate the consequences of the behaviour

(ARRM)

Bandura’s 1961 experiment

He investigated whether the exposure of an aggressive role model induced aggressive behaviour in children. He also investigated whether the children were more likely to imitate same-sex models and if boys were more aggressive than girls.

Process:

The children were first taken to a room where they were denied access to toys in order to arouse mild aggression. Next, they witnessed the models playing with the bobo doll. Different children were shown different models (the control grp none at all). Then, their aggression towards the bobo doll was measured on a scale of 1-5 every 5 seconds by multiple psychologists over 2 minutes.

Findings:

The three hypotheses were true.

Bandura’s 1963 experiment

He investigated whether symbolic models are more effective than live models in inducing imitative behaviour in children. There were 4 groups:

• Live model grp

• Film model grp (children watched a film character)

• Cartoon model grp (film character as a cartoon)

• Control grp (no model)

Cartoon > Film > Live > Control

Bandura’s 1965 experiment

The aggressive model was either rewarded, punished or received no consequences.

The ‘Model Punished’ condition produced less imitation (esp from girls).

‘Model Rewarded’ produced the same imitation as 'No Consequences’. (boys were more aggressive overall)

Strengths of SLT

SLT has useful real-world applications.

E.g: SLT was used to justify a watershed of TV, whereby all violent and sexual content is only shown after 9 pm in order to avoid negatively influencing children

Limitations of SLT

SLT is reductionist as it fails to acknowledge other factors affecting behaviour.

Cognitive approach

Cognitive approach

Assumptions of the cognitive approach

1. Cognitive processes exist

2. The computer analogy

3. Inference

4. Models

Assumption 1 of the cognitive approach (cognitive processes exist)

Cognitive processes work in an organised and systematic manner; they come in between an environmental stimulus and a behavioural response.

Assumption 2 of the cognitive approach (the computer analogy)

The mind is compared to a computer. It is an information processor and is able to absorb, code, store and retrieve info.

Assumption 3 of the cognitive approach (inference)

Cognitive processes cannot be directly observed.

Therefore, cognitive psychologists have to make valid inferences based on the behaviour of a subject to gain insights into mental processes.

Assumption 4 of the cognitive approach (models)

Cognitive psychologists build theoretical/computer models based on their inferences.

What is schema theory?

A schema is a mental framework of beliefs that we collect over time during our personal experiences. It contains information that we expect about someone/something/ourselves.

They enable us to process vast amounts of info rapidly, preventing cognitive overload (overload of info, resulting in inability to perform it)

The development of a schema

When provided info is consistent with that in our schema, we can assimilate it so strengthening the schema.

When provided info is inconsistent with that in our schema, we have to accommodate it by replacing/altering info we currently store in that schema.

Types of Schemas

Role schemas - what we expect from someone

Event schemas/scripts - what we expect out of something that happens

Self schemas - what we expect from ourselves. These can affect how we act.

Strengths of schema theory

Schema theory has had useful real-world applications.

E.g: The police now use “Cognitive interviews” which allows them to recall the incident effectively without schemas distorting their memory due to pre-existing beliefs/expectations.

Limitations of schemas

Schemas can lead to prejudice and biased ideas of things in our world.

We are more likely to listen to info we can assimilate.

We are more likely to ignore info we have to accommodate.

What does cognitive neuroscience aim to study?

The links between brain structure and cognitive function

Methods used in cognitive neuroscience

• Lesion studies

  • Causing brain damage to animals to observe differences in behaviour

• Case studies of people with brain damage

  • e.g. Phineas Gage

• Neuroimaging (brain scanning)

  • Done to pinpoint localisation of function

  • e.g. PET scans scan brain activity during memory tasks

Practical application of cognitive neuroscience

Areas of the brain associated with memory:

Prefrontal cortex - short term memory

Hippocampus - long term memory

Overall strengths of the cognitive approach

• It provides a more detailed explanation of behaviour than other approaches like behaviourism because it considers mental processes

• It also has useful real-life applications, for example, the development of some therapies

Overall limitations of the cognitive approach

• It is guilty of machine reductionism. The approach assumes that all humans process information in the same way, which may result in it having low external validity

• It may also be low in ecological validity because experiments are usually conducted in controlled, artificial settings. This might have effects on behaviour and make results ungeneralisable.

Psychodynamic approach

Psychodynamic approach

Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

1. Behaviour results from unconscious processes

2. Psychodynamic conflict explains behaviour

3. Behaviour is motivated by emotional drives

4. Childhood experiences are important

Which two main drives motivate our behaviour and what is their source?

The two main drives are the libido (sexual drive) and the death drive (aggressive drive), both originating from the id in the unconscious mind.

Which four psychoanalytic techniques did Freud use to study unconscious urges?

1. Free association

2. Study of parapraxes (Freudian slips)

3. Dream analysis

4. Transference

Free association

The client speaks to the psychoanalyst freely with no need to have to filter their thoughts and feelings due to embarrassment or the need to preserve their anonymity.

He believed this would cause Freudian slips to occur during the process, which would reveal hidden conflicts/desires.

Study of parapraxes

Predicting and associating “Freudian slips” with a client’s real, unconscious desires

Dream analysis

Analysis of how a dream that may seem meaningless can actually show what a client’s real, unconscious desires are through association of props in the dream to real life things.

Transference

Taking out feelings on a separate target in order to stimulate a cathartic release of energy.

The 3 levels of consciousness

1. conscious (e.g. thoughts, perceptions etc.)

2. pre-conscious (a go-between where unconscious thoughts can rise and become conscious)

3. unconscious (e.g. fears, sexual desires etc.)

Id

The primitive aspect of our personality. It is based on the pleasure principle because it always wants its way. It develops from birth and is entirely unconscious.

Superego

Our sense of what is right and wrong based on standards set by our same-sex parent. It is based on the morality principle and spans all 3 levels of consciousness.

Ego

The mediator between the id and superego. It is based on the reality principle and spans all 3 levels of consciousness

Psychological defence mechanisms

1. Denial

2. Displacement

3. Regression

4. Repression

Denial (a defence mechanism)

Ignoring bad news that has happened / will happen in order to prevent anxiety.

Displacement

Projecting your feelings onto another, less intimidating target

Regression

Relapsing back into a previous stage of development

Repression

Unconscious blocking of unpleasant stimuli (‘motivated forgetting’)

Oedipus complex

It involves a boy, aged between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually attached to his mother, and hostile towards his father.

Electra complex

A term referring to how a girl, aged between 3 and 6, becomes unconsciously sexually attached to her father and increasingly hostile towards her mother. This starts from penis envy.

This is when a girl feel envious of the male sex as they do not have a penis and feel inferior. She blames her mother and turns affection towards her father as she wants a child from him (to fill this void).

The 5 psychosexual stages of development

1. Oral (old)

2. Anal (age)

3. Phallic (patients)

4. Latent (like)

5. Genitals (grace)

Oral psychosexual stage of development

Develops from birth - 18 months.

The focus of libido is the mouth. The child is being breast fed. The mother’s breast is the object of desire. They are passive, receptive and dependent.

They also focus on exploring with their mouths. The mouth is the way in which the child expresses early sexual energy.

There is biological evidence that babies do have more nerve endings in this area and from a survival point of view it makes perfect sense to derive pleasure from suckling.

Consequences of fixation/unresolved conflicts with the oral area

Freud argues that fixation could be possible if the baby is underfed or overfed. This could result in problems where they: smoke, bite nails and/or be sarcastic, critical

Anal psychosexual stage of development

Develops from 18 months - 3 years

The libido focuses on the anus as the child starts potty training. It is the first time that their ego develops, as parents start to set rules and the child realises there are rules in life that they must conform to.

They realise that they have the power to control something (anal retention/expulsion) and this gives them pleasure.

Consequences of fixation/unresolved conflicts with the anal area

Too strict or too lax potty training can result in anal fixation. This can later lead to problems in life with control. People who are anally retentive are conventionally perfectionists and obsessive.

Whereas people who are anally expulsive are conventionally thoughtless and messy.

Phallic psychosexual stage of development

Develops from 3-6 years

Child becomes aware of their genitals and gender differences.

The superego develops through the Oedipus/Electra complex.

They identify with their same-sex parent in order to find their gender identity.

Consequences of fixation/unresolved conflicts with the phallic area

Phallic personality = narcissistic and reckless

Freud suggested this could lead to homosexuality

Latent psychosexual stage of development

Develops from 6 - 12 years

At this age, sexual desires become dormant. Early issues are forgotten due to our inability to properly remember our early years as a child.

The child doesn’t want anything to do with the opposite sex, as they reach social and intellectual development.

Consequences of fixation/unresolved conflicts with the latent area

none

Genital psychosexual stage of development

Develops from puberty onwards

The child starts to mature and their sexual desires become conscious. The calm of latency is broken by the id, which now desires heterosexual pleasure to satisfy the libido.

Consequences of fixation/unresolved conflicts with the genital area

GOOD consequences: well-adjusted, mature and lovable

Strengths of the psychodynamic approach

• Focused on the effects that childhood experiences have on the developing personality.

• There is some scientific support for the approach.

Fisher and Greenberg (1996) carried out a meta-analysis of 2500 psychoanalytic studies and found support for:

• existence of unconscious motivation

• existence of defence mechanisms

• psychoanalytic therapy for ‘neuroses’ being as effective as other treatments

Limitations of the psychodynamic approach

• It is unfalsifiable because the assumptions can not be scientifically measured or proved wrong

• It is deterministic-suggests that behaviour is determined by psychic determinism and people do not have free will

• The approach is androcentric (favours men). Freud’s views on female sexuality were nowhere near as developed as his views on male sexuality. This leads to an alpha bias (exaggeration of the difference between sexes)

Biological approach

Biological approach

Assumptions of the biological approach

1. Human behaviour can be explained in terms of biological factors

2. Behaviour can be treated biologically

3. We are biologically similar to animals, therefore experimental research conducted on animals can be applied to humans

What is heredity?

The passing of genes (or characteristics) from one generation to the next

Evolution theory

Through the process of natural selection, specific genes will be selected because the characteristics they produce are adaptive for the environment.

‘Survivors’ are more able to pass on their genes, meaning that these characteristics will thrive

Genotype

The actual genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one's parents.

Phenotype

Phenotype describes an individual's observable characteristics, such as hair colour, skin colour, height, and build.

What are the two ways of studying the biological approach?

1. Twin studies

2. Adoption studies

E.g of twin study

Billet et al.

meta analysis that found that MZ twins twice as likely to suffer from OCD if their twin had OCD than DZ twins

E.g. of adoption study

Tienari et al. (2004) found that a high risk group of people ‘adopted away’ from schizophrenia were more likely to develop schizophrenia than a low risk group of adoptees

high risk = 8%

low risk = 2%

This confirmed a genetic link to schizophrenia.

Key features of the biological approach

1. Brain structure

2. Neurochemistry

3. Hormones

Strengths of the biological approach

• Most scientific approach

  • uses the experimental method. Studies are controlled and replicable, which adds to the validity of the findings

• Useful applications (e.g. development of treatments)

Limitations of the biological approach

• Reductionist - believes the only explanation for behaviour is biology

• Biologically deterministic - idea that behaviour is controlled by biological forces; we don’t have free will

  • The approach is socially sensitive - people may believe that because of biological determinism, they will never be able to fix/control their behaviour and will feel helpless

What did Wilhelm Wundt open in Leipzig?

The first Institute for Experimental psychology

Introspection and how Wundt used it to make theories

Patients focus on a stimulus and systematically report their internal thoughts, feelings and sensations

Wundt would then compare reports to generate theories

Which experimental condtitions did Wundt want in his research?

Replicable (procedure)

Standardised (same thing said/done)

Controlled (remove extraneous variables)

Reductionist (break down human experience)

Generalisable (results can be applied generally)

"Really Silly Cats Run Gracefully"

Limitation of introspection

Introspection could be affected by social desirability bias. Also they have over-reliance on self-insight.

Humanistic approach

Humanistic approach

Assumptions of the humanistic approach

1. Humans have free will

2. Humans are unique individuals (an idiographic approach)

3. Generalisations cannot be made about human behaviour (a holistic approach)

What is an idiographic approach?

Focuses on the individual and emphasises the uniqueness of each person, contrasts with the nomothetic approach, which seeks to establish general principles of behaviour