Schachter and Singer

Two Factor Theory of Emotion

Biological Approach

all emotions are a physiological reaction, therefore they are a biological response

Psychology

studies the Two Factor Theory of Emotion

James-Lange Theory

(background)

states that physiological arousal happens first, then emotional experience

Cannon-Bard Theory

(background)

arousal and the emotional experience happen simultaneously

Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory

(background)

believed previous studies left out the brain and cognitive appraisal

ex | anxious feeling in stomach can be reaction to both fear of public speaking and attraction

Aim

to test the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Sub-Aim #1

to test the role of cognitive factors in emotional experience

Sub-Aim #2

if you have an appropriate explanation for the emotion, will it have the appropriate label?

Sub-Aim #3

is physiological arousal needed for emotional experience?

Hypothesis #1

If an individual experiences physiological arousal with no immediate explanation, they will label the state and describe it in terms of cognitions available

Hypothesis #2

If an individual experiences physiological arousal for which they have an appropriate explanation, they will label is accordingly

Hypothesis #3

Given the same circumstances, an individual will react emotionally or describe their feelings as emotions only if they have physiological arousal

Independent Variable #1

physiological arousal

epi-informed

(IV - physiological arousal)

epinephrine + true effects

epi-misinformed

(IV - physiological arousal)

epinephrine + false effects

epi-ignorant

(IV - physiological arousal)

epinephrine + nothing

placebo

(IV - physiological arousal)

saline + nothing

Independent Variable #2

extent to which individual has an explanation for their feelings

epi-informed

(IV - explanation)

should not copy stooge’s behavior and stooge will have nothing to do with behavior

epi-misinformed

(IV - explanation)

will seek explanation for their feelings; should copy stooge and use them as explanation

epi-ignorant

(IV - explanation)

will seek explanation for their feelings; should copy stooge and use them as explanation

placebo

(IV - explanation)

shouldn’t copy stooge

Independent Variable #3

situation - euphoria or anger

Dependent Variable

emotional response

Method

• controlled laboratory setting

• data collected through direct observation and self-report questionnaires

• independent measures - epinephrine can’t be removed once injected

Epinephrine Shot

(apparatus)

adrenaline disguised as a vitamin supplement called Suproxine

Placebo Shot

(apparatus)

saline solution

Injection Room

(apparatus)

where participants are told or not told about the shot, and then administered the shot

Waiting Room

(apparatus)

where the stooge is and where the participant waits for the test for vision

Ambiguous Questionnaire

(apparatus)

purposely has sensitive questions

Euphoric Condition

(apparatus)

papers, trash can, folder, hula hoop

Participants

185 males from an Introductory Psychology course at the University of Minnesota; 90% were obtained via volunteer sample in exchange for an extra 2 points on their final exam for every hour they spent in the experiment; 1 refused the injection and dropped out; all were approved to take the injection by student health services

Control #1

All participants will get an injection

Control #2

All participants in each condition will receive standardized instructions

Control #3

The stooge's behavior and actions will be standardized

Control #4

The items in the rooms will be placed in the same spots for each participant

Step 1

(procedure)

Each participant will be taken into the Injection Room and told the study is for a test for vision

Step 2

(procedure)

The participant is told they will be given a vitamin supplement called Suproxine. If they agree, the physician will give them the injection. The epi-informed condition will be told of the true effects, and the epi-misinformed will be told false effects

Step 3

(procedure)

The participant is taken into the Waiting Room and introduced to the stooge posing as a real participant. The participant is then told to wait 20 minutes for the test for vision

Step 4

(procedure)

In the euphoric condition, the room will be messy, and the researcher will apologize for it. The participant is told they can use the items in the room. The stooge will complete their set of behaviors and try to get the participant to join in

Step 5

(procedure)

In the anger condition, they will fill out the ambiguous questionnaire while waiting for the eye test. As soon as the researcher leaves, the stooge starts complaining, stating that the shot is unfair and that they had no choice. During the questionnaire, the stooge complains and gets mad at certain questions. Any question the stooge doesn’t like will be angrily crossed out. When it gets to sexual practices, the stooge shouts, rips up the paper, and leaves the room

Step 6

(procedure)

In both conditions, the researcher will enter the room before the 20 minutes ends and hand out the questionnaire on feedback of the supplement

Step 7

(procedure)

The participants are debriefed and told they won’t do a test for vision. Since they were suspicious during the study, 11 of the participants’ data was excluded

quantitative data

questionnaires and observations in behavioral checklist

euphoric quantitative data

4 categories - joined with, initiated, ignored, and watched stooge

anger quantitative data

6 categories - agreed with, disagree with, neutral toward, initiated, ignored, and watched stooge

qualitative data

questionnaires (control questions, false symptoms, two about physiological state and 2 about emotional state)

• how irritated, angry, or annoyed do you feel?

• how good or happy do you feel?

• have you experienced any heart palpitations?

• do you feel any terror?

Finding #1

In all epinephrine conditions, pulse was increased and more heart palpitations were experienced than in the placebo

Finding #2

Only 5 people in the epinephrine conditions experienced no symptoms

Finding #3

There is no significant difference between the placebo and other conditions, so it serves as a control

Finding #4

In the euphoric self-reports, epi-informed reported less euphoria than misinformed and ignorant

Finding #5

In the anger self-reports, epi-informed had the highest anger score and epi-ignorant had the lowest

Finding #6

For observation, the epi-misinformed had the highest level of euphoric activity and joined in the most with the stooge. The epi-informed had the least activity

Finding #7

For observation, epi-informed had the lowest anger activity and epi-ignorant had the highest

Conclusion #1

All hypotheses are supported

Conclusion #2

The experiment gave evidence for the Two Factor Theory in that emotions must have physiological arousal and emotional appraisal

Ethics

Informed consent was obtained and confidentiality was maintained. Protection from harm was violated because they were injected with an unknown drug and experienced emotional distress. Deception by commission was used in the lying of the purpose of the study, the epinephrine shots being disguised as vitamin supplement, the side effects for the epi-misinformed condition and te use of the stooge. Debriefing took place following the experiment

Strengths #1

The high level of standardization allows for future replication

Strengths #2

A laboratory setting allows for a high level of controls

Strengths #3

The sample of participants is large, allowing for generalization

Strengths #4

The use of independent measures prevents participants from guessing aim

Strengths #5

The use of the one-way mirror minimizes demand characteristics from the researcher

Weakness #1

A laboratory setting lowers ecological validity

Weakness #2

The task of being injected with a shot and filling out questionnaires lacks mundane realism

Weakness #3

There are many ethical concerns

Weakness #4

The gender skew and small age range of the sample makes generalization difficult

Weakness #5

The use of independent measures brings about participant variables such as personality

Application

(issues & debates)

to therapy for helping people better understand their emotions

Nature vs. Nurture

(issues & debates)

Nature is supported in that everyone has physiological experiences of emotions, and nurture is supported in that experiences are used in cognitive labeling

Individual vs. Situational

(issues & debates)

The individual explanation is that physiological arousal is based on emotion people are predisposed to, and the situational explanation is that the physiological arousal was based on the situation they were experiencing - euphoria or anger