psyc

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Goals of Psychology

describe, predict, explain, control, change, or influence behavior and mental processes.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud emphasized...

...the role of unconscious conflicts (often sexual, aggressive in nature) in determining behavior and personality; believed events in our childhood have great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.

Key Behaviorists

Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist believed...

...that psychology should focus strictly on observable behaviors that could be objectively measured.

Behaviorists rejected...

...the emphasis on consciousness promoted by structuralism and functionalism as well as Freudian ideas about unconscious influences, claiming that such ideas were unscientific and impossible to test.

Humanistic Psychology

an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Humanistic psychologist who emphasized person's conscious experiences, potential for psychological growth and self-direction, self-determination, free will, and the importance of choice in human behavior.

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist who in his theory of motivation, emphasized the importance of psychological growth; also known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)

lack of judgement towards client; having positive feelings toward client regardless of what they do, say, feel

Client-Centered Therapy (Rogers)

Therapeutic environment that is conformable, non-judgmental and empathetic. Clients lead discussion and no one tries to steer the client in a particular direction. Unconditional positive regard, shows complete acceptance and support for their clients.

Contemporary Psychology

as psychology has developed as a scientific discipline, the topics it investigates become progressively more diverse

Biological Perspective

studies the physical bases of behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics

Psychodynamic Perspective

influenced by Freud's theories, emphasis on unconscious processes, early experiences

Behavioral Perspective

How behavior is acquired/modified through experience/environment

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships, self-concept

Positive Psychology

processes that contribute to optimal functioning

Cognitive Perspective

important role of mental processes in how people process and remember information, develop language, solve problems, and think

Cross-Cultural Perspective

emphasizes diversity of behavior across cultures

Individualistic Cultures

emphasize needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group

Collectivistic Cultures

emphasize the group

Ethnocentrism

belief one's culture/ethnic group is superior

Evolutionary Perspective

applies principles of evolution to explain psychological processes

The Scientific Method

a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guides all scientists, including psychologists, in conducting research to create questions, generate evidence, and draw conclusions

Steps of the Scientific Method

Identify problem, Form Hypothesis, Collect Data, Analyze Data, Form Conclusions, Report Findings

Scientific Method: Step 1

formulate a testable hypothesis

Scientific Method: Step 2

design the study and collect data

Scientific Method: Step 3

analyze the data and draw conclusions

Scientific Method: Step 4

report findings

Hypothesis

a testable prediction or question about the relationship between two or more variables

Theory

a tentative explanation that explains phenomenal tries to integrate and accounts for relationships of various findings and observations

Replication

repeating methods of a study again, but with different participants or situations, to see if the same results happen

Empirical Evidence

based on observation, measurement, and/or experimentation

Variable

a factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be observed/measured

Independent variable

intentionally manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment

Dependent variable

factor observed and measured for change in an experiment; influenced by the independent variable

Operational Definition

how variables will be measured

Statistics

branch of math used to organize/summarize/interpret data

Statistically Significant

mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance

Meta-Analysis

statistical technique that combines and analyzes results of many research studies on topic in order to understand trends

Descriptive Research Methods

strategies from observing behavior

Naturalistic Observation

the science of people and animal watching

Case Studies

a research method that involves the intensive examination of unusual people or organizations

Surveys

questionnaire of interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics or a particular group

Sample

selected segment of population used to represent group being studied

Correlation Study

examines how strongly two variables are related to, or associated with, each other. Does NOT equal causation.

Correlation Coefficient

a numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables

Positive Correlation

two factors vary systematically in the same direction, increasing or decreasing together

Negative Correlation

two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases

Longitudinal

same group of individuals studies over a period of time

Cross-Sectional

individuals of different ages or development stages are directly compared at one time point

Experiments

demonstrates a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables

Main Effect

change that can be directly attributed to the IV after controlling for other possible influences

Confounding (extraneous) variable

a factor or variable other than the ones being studies that could affect the outcome of an experiment

Experimental group/condition

group of participants exposed to experimented conditions

Random assignment

all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental groups/conditions

Single-blind study

researchers are aware of conditions assigned but not the subjects

Double-blind technique

participants and researchers are unaware of treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned

Clinical Psychologists

Psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and everyday behavioral problems.

Neuroscientists

those who study the brain and the nervous system

Demand characteristics

subtle cues/signals by the researchers that communicate the type of responses that are expected

Placebo

fake substances, treatment, or procedure with no known direct effects

Placebo effect

change attributed to beliefs/expectations rather than actual drug/treatment/procedure

Comparative Psychology

the branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species

Neuron

a cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell

Sensory (afferent) neuron

sends information to the brain from receptor cells in internal organs and sense organs

Motor (afferent) neuron

signals muscles to move

Interneuron

communicates information from one neuron to another

Inside the neuron: cell body

contains structure that manufacture proteins and process nutrients

Inside the neuron: dendrites

receive messages from other neurons or specialized cells

Inside the neuron: axon

carry information from neuron to other cells in body

Inside the neuron: myelin sheath

a white fatty covering that is wrapped around the axons of some, but not all neurons

Inside the neuron: terminal branches

branches at the end of the axon

Action potential

movement of electrical impulse across membranes of a nerve cell

Stimulus threshold

minimum level of stimulation required to produce an action potential

Resting potential

state in which a neuron is prepared to produce an action potential

Self-sustaining

action potential is self-sustaining and continues to the end of the axon; no such thing as partial action potential

all-or-non law

either the neuron is sufficiently stimulated, and an action potential occurs, or the neuron is not sufficiently stimulated, and an action potential does not occur

neural impulse

electrical signal traveling down the axon

Repolarization

cell becomes more K+

Depolarization

cell becomes more Na+

Hyperpolarization

cell becomes more negative

synapse

a communication point between two neurons separated by the synaptic gap

presynaptic neuron

message sending

postsynaptic neuron

message receiving

synaptic transmission

the entire process of transmitting information at the synapse

Drugs affecting synaptic transmission

interferes with the normal functioning of neurotransmitters in the synapse

Neurotransmitters: antagonist

blocking or reducing time of reuptake

Neurotransmitters: agonist

mimicking specific neurotransmitters

Glia cells

provide structural support, nutrition, removal of cell wastes for neurons throughout the nervous system

Nervous system

primary communication network of the body

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

all nerves outside the CNS

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

communicates sensory information to CNS and motor information from CNS to muscles

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

regulates the fight-or-flight response and involuntary functions

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

body's emergency system, rapidly activating bodily systems to meet threats or emergencies

Parasympathetic

conserves and maintains physical resources

Hormones

regulate blood pressure, metabolism, and reproduction; used to send information