Unit XIV: The "Belle Epoque"- Europe at the End of the 19th Century and Unit XV: The New Imperialism- Europe's World Supremacy

"new Industrial Revolution"

a new phase of the global economy and Industrial Revolution: new sources of power were tapped, already mechanized industries were expanded, new industries were created, and industry spread geographically

balance of payments

the use of invisible exports to close the gap between high imports and lower exports

invisible exports

shipping and insurance services rendered to foreigners, and interest on money lent out or increased: all brought foreign exchange and enhanced Britain's global position; made up difference in exports and imports

the corporation

large and impersonal, the usual form of organization for industry and commerce

trusts and cartels

in the U.S. and Europe in industries that were horizontally integrated: companies coming together to prevent competition

"vertical" integration

the consolidation of an entire process from start to finish ex. steel business bought mines and eventually went on to produce steel manufactures in order to stay successful

"horizontal" integration

concerns of the same level combined with each other to reduce competition and protect themselves against fluctuations in prices and markets

Marshal MacMahon

an early president of the Third French Republic that tried to dismiss a premier he did not like and then went on to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies and held new elections but was shot down: because of him and his actions, the role of president was turned into a simply ceremonial figure

General Boulanger

gathered a group of Bonapartists, monarchists, aristocrats, extreme radical republicans and disgruntled workers; became a popular figure and seemed to seize power before collapsing in comical failure

Dreyfus affair

Jewish army officer found (incorrectly) guilty of treason-spurred anti-semitic feelings; eventually the officer was exonerated

Laic laws of 1905

"separated" church and state; church property taken over by the government, priests and bishops no longer paid by the state; the pope retaliated by excommunicating those who voted for those measures

Radical Socialists

(really more radical republicans) patriotic, anticlerical spokesmen for small shopkeepers and lesser propertied interests

Victorian era

1837-1901, Queen Victoria reigned as constitutional monarch (in Great Britain) and gave her name to an era of distinguished material progress, literary accomplishments and political stability

Reform Bills of 1867 and 1884

moved Great Britain toward universal male suffrage (one increased voting to 1/3 of adult males, the other to 3/4 of the adult males)

Irish home rule

allowed Ireland (in 1914) to have their own parliament

David Lloyd George

chancellor of the royal/national treasury during 1906-1916 (when liberals were in control of the government) helped put through a spectacular program of social welfare (sickness, accident and old age insurance, unemployment, insurance, moderate minimum wage law)

Parliament Act of 1911

deprived the Lords of all veto power in money matters and all but a two-year delaying veto on action in the commons on other legislation

Osborne Judgement

issued by the House of Lords; forbade trade unions to collect to fund the young Labour Party's organizational and electoral efforts

Kulturkampf

"battle for modern civilization", launched by Bismarck in 1871: put laws through imposing restrictions on Catholic worship and education, expelled the Jesuits, arrested/exiled many Catholic bishops

Antisocialist laws

passed because Bismarck thought the socialists were gaining too much power: prevented socialist meetings and newspapers, effectively sending socialism underground

William II

grandson of William I, kicked out Bismarck, led Germany toward a constitutional crisis

Giolitti

prime minister of Italy, brought on protests by his actions done in order to gain popularity (conquer Libya, allow suffrage)

trasformismo

the transformation of old political groups into new government coalitions formed by bribery

"new model" unionism

focused on taking unions out of politics, concentrate on advancing the interests of each separate trade

industrial unions

joining in one union of all workers in one industry regardless of skill or job of the individual

British Labour party

formed by joint efforts from trade union officials and middle-class intellectuals; led by the labor unions, largely desired to defend the unions as established and respectable institutions

Taff Vale decision

ruled in British courts in 1901: held a union financially responsible for business losses incurred by an employer during a strike

Bakunin

Russian anarchist- viewed the state as the cause of the worker's afflictions: held that the state should be attacked and abolished

German Social Democratic party

Marxian and Lassallean socialists united: in 1875 at a German workers' conference

Jules Guesde

a self-taught worker, former Communard and now a rigid Marxist: held it impossible to emancipate the working class by compromise of any sort

Jean Jaures

attracted workers in France, eloquently linked social reform to the French revolutionary tradition and defense of republican institutions

Fabian Society

group that believed socialism was the social and economic counterpart to political democracy; no class conflict was needed, gradual and reasonable measures would in due time bring about a socialist state

Eduard Berstein

Social Democratic member of the Reichstag, wrote "Evolutionary Socialism": stated that class conflict might not be needed, capitalism may be gradually transformed into the worker's interest, workers could obtain their ends through democratic means (because they could vote)

revolutionary syndicalism

built upon the idea that the workers' unions might themselves become the supreme authoritative institutions of society (through a mass strike)- replacing property, marker economy and all government

Georges Sorel

the main intellectual exponent of revolutionary syndicalism

Karl Kautsky

orthodox Marxist who criticized the revisionists as compromisers who betrayed Marxism for petty bourgeois ends

Alexandre Millerand

French socialist who was condemned by the Second International for accepting a ministerial post in the French cabinet

Lenin

led a group that, at a congress in London in 1903 about revisionism, demanded the stomping out of revisionism

Bolsheviks

the uncompromising (orthodox) Marxists, the majority of the Marxists

International Council of Women

established with the help of American (Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton) and European feminists: showed that the growing demand for women's rights was in all modern countries

Women's Social and Political Union

new organization in Britain that sponsored petitions, mass meetings and protests demanding equal voting rights in both local and national elections

Emmeline Pankhurst

energetic leader of the Women's Social and Political Union who led radical wing of the suffrage movement (disruption of Parliament sessions, breaking of store windows and mailboxes, damaging of government buildings, hunger strikes in prison)

suffragettes

women fighting for women's suffrage

Origin of Species

published by Charles Darwin; evolution is the most influential intellectual theme of the era, set forth scientific arguments for the biological evolution of living organisms and provoked cultural debates far beyond the academic sphere of natural scientists

T.H. Huxley

biologist who became the chief spokesman for Darwin ("Darwin's bulldog"), debated with many over the ideas of evolution

Gregor Mendel

through cross-pollination of pea plants, arrived at an explanation of how heredity operates and how hybridization can take place

Sir James Frazer

anthropologist who, through his "The Golden Bough", demonstrated that some of the most sacred practices, rites and ideas of Christianity were not unique among human religious traditions: similar rituals and beliefs could be found in numerous pre-modern societies and only the thinnest line was separating the belief in religion from the belief in magic

Sigmund Freud

Viennese physician whose founding of psychoanalysis formed part of the most significant of all developments in the study of human behavior

Ivan Pavlov

Russian who conducted famous series of experiments in which he "conditioned" dogs to salivate automatically at the ringing of a bell once they had become used to that sound with the serving of their food

agnosticism

anything unknowable to science (which they believed provided the only "positive" knowledge of the world) must therefore remain unknowable forever, acknowledged ignorance

Herbert Spencer

widely read popularizer of agnosticism in England; also pictured a universe governed by Darwinian evolution

Friedrich Nietzsche

German philosopher, unsystematic, radical thinker: low opinion of modern, democratic societies, developed idea of an overman (new kind of noble who would create ethical values and philosophical truths that would enable him to break from constraining cultural traditions); critiqued religion, reason and rationally

"higher" criticism of the Bible

an effort to apply the technique of scholarship applied to secular documents to the scriptures

David Friedrich Strauss

German theologian who employed "higher" criticism of the Bible, author of "Life of Jesus"- which reverently and firmly explained away as myth many miraculous and supernatural episodes

Pius IX

pope during 1846-1878, driven from Rome in 1848, wrote "Syllabus of Errors"

Syllabus of Errors

denounced a long list of widely current ideas as erroneous, warning to Catholics from the pope

Vatican Council of 1870

general church council convened by Pope Pius IX, proclaimed papal infallibility

Leo XIII

pope after Pius IX, carried a counter-offensive against irreligion and instituted a revival of medieval philosophy as represented by Thomas Aquinas; Rerum Novarum!!!!

Rerum Novarum

upheld private property as a natural right within the limits of justice, but recommended that Catholics form socialist parties of their own and form labor unions under Catholic auspices because socialism was very Christian in prinviple

Lateran treaty of 1929

papacy finally recognized the Italian state and Italy conceded the existence of a Vatican City (around 2 square miles) that was and independent state independent of Italy

Theodor Herzl

Hungarian-born Jewish journalist appalled by the turbulence of the Dreyfus affair uh civilized France, formed modern/political Zionism (which was the movement to establish a Jewish state in Palestine

economic liberalism

the belief in organizing the economy so that the greatest number of decisions are made by individuals (not collective institutions/organizations)

neomercantilism

a recollection of the attempts of governments in the 17th and 18th centuries to subordinate economic activity to political ends

realism

philosophy of a kind of unreasoning faith in the constructive value of struggle and tough-minded rejection of ideas and ideals

irrationalism

any movement that stresses the non-rationalism or irrational element of reality over the rational; reaction against rationalism

Reflections on Violence

written by Georges Sorel, declared that violence was good, and that workers should believe in the "myth" of a future general strike

colony

areas directly goverened by European states and their appointed government officials

protectorate

areas where the native chief/sultan/bey/rajah/prince was maintained and guaranteed against internal upheaval/external conquest BUT a European Commissioner usually told them what to do, thus protecting European interests

sphere of influence

divisions of countries where no single European country could stake its claim; supposedly left the country independent but each area of influence from outside countries undermined its sovereignty

"sheltered markets"

argued that each industrialized nation should develop a colonial empire in which the home country would supply manufactured goods in return for raw materials, thus creating a large self-sufficient trade unit

neomercantilism

the phase of imperialism promoting sheltered markets because it revived (in substance) the mercantilism/national economic systems of the 16-18th centuries

"surplus capital"

the difference between the amount raised through a sale of a product and the amount it cost to manufacture it

J.A. Hobson

English socialist who criticized the global economic system, wrote an influential book on imperialism in 1903

Joseph Chamberlain

British statesman; came to believe that the national community should take better care of its members and that the British empire should take better care of its Britons

"Imperialism, The Highest State of Capitalism"

written by Lenin in 1916; ascribed imperialism to the accumulation of surplus capital and condemned it on socialist grounds

White Man's Burden

The White mans job was to "civilize" the other societies; imperialism was a moral duty

Manchu dynasty

the Chinese imperial government that was more interested in isolating and controlling the strange "sea barbarians" than pursuing commercial exchange

Treaty of Nanking, 1842

forced the Chinese imperial government to cede Hong Kong to Britain forever, pay an indemnity of $100 million and open up four large cities to foreign trade with low tariffs

Matthew Perry

commodore who steamed into Edo (now Tokyo Bay) in 1853 and demanded diplomatic negotiations with the emperor; led to signing of treaty between Japan and U.S. that opened ports and permitted trade

Muhammad Ali

Albanian-born Turkish General who was appointed governor of Egypt and began Westernizing it

Ismail

Muhammad Ali's son who tried to Westernize Egypt but also led Egypt to be eventually taken over by British by overborrowing from Great Britain and France

Suez Canal

supported by Ismail and completed in 1869 by a French company

Tewfiq

Ismail's weak son who led Egypt during its takeover by Great Britain

General Evelyn Baring

British consul who ruled Egypt after 1883; his rule resulted in tax reforms and better conditions for peasants

Cecil Rhodes

led the British in their imperialist in Africa

Boer War

(1899-1902) fought between Afrikaners and British: British won and established a new Union of South Africa

Leopold II of Belgium

energetic, strong-willed monarch with a lust for distant territory: intruded into the Congo area of Africa (Central Africa) through others; caused much death in the areas he helped invade

Bismarck

helped lead the international conference on Africa in Berlin in 1884 and 1885: discussed rules of imperialism

Kitchener

led a British force that moved cautiously up the Nile and met the attacking Muslims in 1898 at Omdurman

Omdurman

(1898) massacre of Muslim tribesmen (armed only with spears) by the British forces (armed with machine guns)

1857 mutiny

the last of the "traditional" responses to British rule in India which was spread by Muslim and Hindu mercenaries throughout northern and central India

Indian National Congress

coming together of educated Indians who demanded increasingly for the equality and self-government that Britain enjoyed (radicals called, however, for complete independence of the Indians)

Meiji Restoration

(1867) restored the political power to the emperor (done by patriotic samurai) which led to the westernization of Japan

Open Door Policy

the United States' policy that opposed formal annexation of Chinese territory

Boxer Rebellion

the fighting of a secret society against foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians which led to the occupation/plunder (by imperialist powers) of Peking and a heavy indemnity

Chinese Eastern Railway

China allowed Russia to build this through Manchuria to Vladivostok, but also implied special zones, railway guards, mining and timber rights, and other auxiliary actions; angered Japan (because they felt as though Russia was taking the fruit of its labors)

Anglo-Japanese alliance

Britain and Japan, one of Britain's ways to respond to their international isolation (lasted 20 years)

Battle of Mukden

fought over the control of the key city of Manchurian (Sheyang); engaged more troops than any previous battle in human history (624,000 men)

Battle of Tsushima Strait

Russia's fleet was destroyed by the new and untested Japanese navy

Treaty of Portsmouth

through this, Japan recovered (from Russia) what it had won/lost in 1895 (namely Port Arthur, Liaotung Peninsula, a preferred position in Manchuria and protectorate in Korea and southern half of Sakhalin island)