SPAU 3343 Midterm/Final Review

IPA

Internation Phonetic Alphabet

Linguistics

the scientific study of language

Phonetics

Part of branch of Linguistics. The scientific study of speech sounds

-articulatory phonetics

-acoustic phonetics

-auditory phonetics

-linguistic phonetics

Phonology

How speech sounds are used in languages. Study of systems of speech sounds and the rules which govern them.

Sound/Speech Sounds

Sounds are not the same as orthography. The IPA was created to represent actual speech sounds. Sounds change based on speech context..

(elements of)

Sounds consist of variation in air pressure creating longitudal waves. The waves occur every rapidly one after another.

Phone

An individual sound of speech; an elementary sound unit.

Phoneme

The smallest sound unit in a language that distinguishes word meanings.

-eme = "systematic unit"

Allophone - []

A variant of a phoneme. The allophones of a phoneme form a set of sounds that:

-do not change the meaning of a word

-are all very similar to one another and,

-occur in phonetic context different from one another (for example, syllable-initial as opposed to syllable final).

The differences among allophones can be stated in terms of phonological rules.

Tense Vowels

Occur in words with a final so-called "e" in the spelling (e.g., "mate", "mete", "kite", and "cute") These vowels CAN occur in open syllables (V, CV, CCV, etc.)

/I, e, u, o/

lax Vowels

occur in the words without a “silent e” such as “mat”, “met”, “kit” and “cut”. These vowels CANNOT occur in open syllables, but are only found in closed

/ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʊ, ʌ/

Dipthong

A vowel in which there is a change in quality during a single syllable, as in "high"

/aɪ/ "high" "buy" moves towards a high front vowel, but much beyond a mid front vowel

/aʊ/ "how" usually starts with a very similar quality tot that at the beginning of "high"

/ɔɪ/ "boy"

Feature Theory

Markedness - mark only unusual cases

Voicing, place and manner...

Consonants are assumed to be: central instead of lateral, Therefore, "lateral" is a marked feature. You don't have to mark "central."

Oral instead of nasal Therefore, "nasal" is marked. You don't have to mark "oral."

Voice

Either voice or voiceless

Place of Articulation

The position in the mouth where a consonant sound is produced

manner of Articulation

how the sound is produced

Binary Features

a state is either "on" or "off", for example voiced or voiceless

Graded Features

Like prosody (the melody of language), it cannot be explained by clear-cut binary features.

Broad Transcription

phonetic transcription that uses a simple set of symbols

Narrow Transcription

phonetics transcription that shows more phenetics detail, either just by using more specific symbols or by also representing some allophonic differences.

Captures allophones and shows more phonetic detail, either by just using more specific symbols by just using more specific symbols or by using a variety of diacritics

Phonemic

a transcription made by using letters of the simplest possible shapes, and in the simplest possible number (generally goes with "broad")

Systematic Phonetic

A transcription that shows the allophones in very detailed manners (generally goes with "narrow")

Connected Speech

The way we talk daily. Our talk is "connected" because we do not separate each words as we talk. Connected speech is not like citation form.

Citation Form

A teacher type of talk. Each words is articulated separately. We rarely talk in this form.

Single words pronounced by themselves. Our conservation is usually carried out in "connected speech"

Coarticualtion

-Overlapping of speech sounds

-language dependent

Sounds before/after influence the next/previous sounds.

Example: "screws" //

The lip-rounding needed for /u/ and /r/ seems to take place as early as the /s/: anticipatory coarticulation

This command remains in effect after the end of the /u/, even into the final /z/: preservative coarticulation

Anticipatory Coarticulation

"look-ahead" future sounds influence the present sound. When you say " I said 'su' again", your mouth prepares for articulation of /u. before it finishes producing /s/

Preservative Coarticulation

"carryover" previous sound still influences your present sound.

Palatography

A technique for observing the position of the tongue in relation to the palate during articulation, especially by placing powder or dye on the palate and then noting the are from which it has been removed by the contact of the tongue with the palate during the production of a speech sound.

Phonological Rule 1

Voiceless stops become aspirated when stressed and syllable initial.

Diacritic: [ h ]

Example: [p h It]

Phonological Rule 2 (no diacritic)

voiceless stops become unaspirated after /s/ at beginning of syllable.

Diacritics: none

Examples : [st re]

Phonological Rule 3

Approximants become (partially) devoiced after aspirated stops.

Diacritic: [ . ]

Examples: [t h r e]

.

Phonological Rule 4

Stops are unreleased before stops.

Diacritic: [ ^ ]

Example: [risk ^t]

Phonological Rule 5 ([?])

Vowels are proceeded by glottal stops at the start of an utterance.

Diacritics: [?]

Examples: [?aI] [?ots]

Phonological Rule 6 ([?])

Voiceless stops ( and affricates) are preceded by glottal stop after a vowel and at the end of a word.

Diacritic: [?]

Example: [sti?p]

Phonological Rule 7

Voiceless alveolar stops become glottal stops before a nasal in the same word.

Diacritic: [?]

Example: ['bi?n] ['k h ?n]

, ,

Phonological Rule 8

Alveolar stops ( note: /t/ or /d/ ) become a voiced flap between a stressed vowel and an unstressed vowel.

Diacritic: [J]

Example: ['beJi]

Phonological Rule 9 ([ , ])

Nasals become syllabic at the end of a word and after an obstruent (fricatives, stops, affricates)

Diacritic: [ , ]

Example: ['bek^n]

,

Phonological Rule 10

Liquids become syllabic at the end of a word and after a consonant.

Diacritic: [ , ]

Examples: ['hardr]

,

Phonological Rule 11

Alveolar become dentalized before dentals.

Diacritic: [ - ]

Example: [nor 0]

-

Phonological Rule 12

Laterals become velarized after a vowel and before a consonant or at the end of a word.

Diacritic: [ ~ ]

Example: [sIl~ k]

Phonological Rule 13 [ ~ ]

Vowels become nasalized before nasals.

Diacritic: [ ~ ] at the top

Example: [s~un]

VPM of "m"

Voiced bilabial stop (nasal)

VPM of "n"

Voiced alveolar stop (nasal)

VPM of "ng"

Voiced velar stop (nasal)

VPM of "p"

Voiceless bilabial stop (oral)

VPM of "t"

Voiceless alveolar stop (oral)

VPM of "k"

Voiceless velar stop (oral)

VPM of "b"

Voiced bilabial stop (oral)

VPM of "d"

Voiced alveolar stop (oral)

VPM of "g"

Voiced velar stop (oral)

VPM of "f'"

Voiceless labiodental fricative

VPM of "ɵ"

Voiceless dental fricative

VPM of "s"

Voiceless alveolar fricative

VPM of "ʧ

Voiceless post-alveolar affricate

VPM of "&" sha

Voiceless post-alveolar fricative

VPM of "h"

Voiceless glottal fricative

VPM of "v"

Voiced labiodental fricative

VPM of "ə" the

Voiced dental fricative

VPM of "z"

Voiced alveolar fricative

VPM of "3"

Voiced post-alveolar fricative

VPM of "ʧ"

Voiceless post-alveolar affricate

VPM of "d3"

Voiced post-alveolar affricate

VPM of "r" (upside down)

Voiced alveolar approximant

VPM of "j"

Voiced palate approximant

VPM of "l"

voiced alveolar lateral

VPM of "l~"

Voiced velar lateral

VPM of "w"

Voiced bilabial approximant

Assimilation

Coarticulation is one form of assimilation.

Refers to the change of one sound into another sound because of the influence of neighboring sounds, as in the change of underlying [n] to [m] in "input" ["ImpUt] or of underling [z] to [3] in "does she" [dVZSi]

Dissimilation

A phonological process whereby segments become less similar to one another

One good example is the process which changed one of two r segments within a word into / in the development of latin into modern-day Romance languages. This, Latin arbor (tree) become Spanish arbol

Syllable

A unit of speech consisting of either a single vowel (or a syllabic consonant) or a vowel and one or more consonants associated with it.

The syllable is often used to describe patterns of stress and timing in speech

Tonic Syllable

Within an intonation phrase, the stressed syllables of multisyllabic words must still be marked for their local "primary" stress but we must also mark the one syllable that carries the major stress of the whole phrase.

The syllable within a tone group that stands out because it carries the major stress is called the tonic syllable

Sentence-level intonation

English also used sentence-level intonation, which is the use of pitch variations to convey syntactic information.

Examples:

-yes/no questions

-"wh" questions

-simple declarative sentence

Tone group

A group of words which constitutes one complete intonation pattern

Also known as an "intonation phrase"

Stress

The use of extra respiratory energy during a syllable

Usually LOUDER, LONGER, HIGHER (in pitch)

Stress Placement

The symbol // is a stress mark that has been placed before the syllable carrying the main stress

Stress should always be marked in words of more that one syllable

Stress-timed language

English and German

Syllable-timed language

Spanish and Japanese

Tone language

Chinese

Diacritics

A small mark that can be use to distinguish different values of an IPA symbol

fundamental frequency (F0)

-In speech, the fundamental frequency refers to the first harmonic of the voice.

-The perceptual correlate is pitch.

Harmonics

Energy at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency in voiced sounds

Ideally, the voice source can be conceptualized as a line spectrum in which energy appears as a series of harmonics

Formants

Formants are a product of vocal tract resonances

Vowels are characterized chiefly by the frequencies of the first three formants (F1, F2, F3)

The formants that characterize different vowels are the result of different shapes of the vocal tract

Resonance -three basic rules

F1 Rule: inversely related to tongue height. As the jaw goes down, F1 goes up

F2 Rule: directly related to tongue fronting. As the tongue moves forward, F2 increases

Lip rounding rule - all formants are lowered by lip rounding (because lip protrusion lengthens the vocal tract 'tub')

Physical vs. Perceptual

Physical Perceptual

fundamental frequency F0 >>>>>>>>>> "pitch

amplitude/intensity >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> "loudness"

duration >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 'length"

Vowel Reduction

The replacement of a vowel by [e] or by a vowel closer to [e] usually triggered by the unstressed nature of the syllable concerned.

More likely to occur in spontaneous speech than in citation form

Geminate Consonant

Long consonants that can be analyzed as "double: are called geminates

Example: the long consonant in the middle of Italian "folla"

Careful: many English words are spelled with two consonants, but these are NOT usually geminates (ex: running)

Cardinal Vowels

A set of reference vowels first defined by Daniel Jones

The vowels of any language can be described by stating their relations to the cardinal vowels

A series of eight cardinal vowels, evenly spaced around the outside of the possible vowel area and designed to act as fixed refence points for phoneticians

Spectrogram

A graphic representation of sounds in terms of their component frequencies, in which time is shown on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis, and the intensity of each frequency at each moment in time by the darkness of the mark

Bandwidth

A measure of the frequency band of a sound

Measured is determined at the half-power ("3 dB down") points of the frequency response curve. Both the lower and higher frequencies that define the bandwidth are 3 dB less intense than the peak energy in the band

Phrase

The relative timing of two or more components of a complex period waveform

Phase is measured In degrees.

Suppose that two components are at zero amplitude at the same time. If one is positive-going and the other negative-going, then they have a relative phase of 180 degress

Amplitude

The magnitude of displacement for a sound wave

The waveform of a sound is represented on a two-dimensional graph in which amplitude is plotted as a function of time

Generally speaking, amplitude of sound determines the perceived loudness of the sound

Frequency

The rate of vibration of a periodic event. Example: a periodic sound has a frequency measured as the number of cycles of vibration per second (Hz)

Frequency = cycles per second

(CPS) = Hz

Wavelenght

The distance that a periodic signal travels in one complete cycle of vibration

Wavelength = speech of sound / frequency

Not really used much in the sound world

Suprasegmental Features

Phonetic features which are not properties of single consonants or vowels

-stress

-lenght

-tone

-intonation

Sonority

The loudness of a sound relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress, and pitch

Low vowel /a/ is louder (has greater sonority) that /I, u/

Prominence

The extent to which a sound stands out from others because of its sonority, length, stress, and pitch

Strong Form

The form in which a word is pronounced when it is stressed, This term is usually applied only to words that normally occur unstressed and with a weak form, such as "to" and "a"

Weak Form

The unstressed form of any word, such as "but" or "as" that does not maintain its full form when It occurs in conversational speech

Tone

A pitch that conveys part of the meaning a word. In Mandarin (Chinese) for example, /ma/ pronounced with a high-level tone means "mother" and with a high falling tone means "scold"

There are two types of tone: Register (in African languages) and Contour (Chinese)

Register tone = set levels

Contour tone = may include ex: rise/fall (tone shapes)

Breathy Voice (murmur)

the vocal folds are only slightly apart so that they vibrate while allowing a high rate of airflow through the glottis

i.e. Hindi

Creaky voice (laryngealization)

The arytenoid cartilages hold the posterior end of the vocal folds together so that they can vibrate only at the other end, as in Hausa.