EOC rv (1.2, 1.3, 3.2, 3.4)

Difference between gram positive and gram negative bacteria

Gram positive: thin/thick peptidoglycan, yes/no outer membrane, pink/red/purple

Gram negative: thin/thick peptidoglycan, yes/no outer membrane, pink/red/purple

Gram positive: thick peptidoglycan, no outer membrane, purple.

Gram negative: thin peptidoglycan, outer membrane with endotoxins, pink/red.

Gel-like DNA region w/ chromosome, stores genetic info

Nucleoid

Small circular DNA; carries genes (like antibiotic resistance); can transfer b/w bacteria

Plasmids

Make proteins; join amino acids

ribosomes

Rigid, made of peptidoglycan, protects cell

cell wall

Semi-permeable, controls what enters/ leaves cell

plasma membrane

Gelatinous layer; helps bacteria stick and evade immune system

Capsule

Tail-like structure; helps bacteria move

Flagella (movement)

Hair-like; attach to surfaces (fimbriae) or transfer DNA (sex pilus)

Pili

Lipopolysaccharides in Gram-negative bacteria; can be toxic

Endotoxins

How do B-lactam antibiotics work?

Stop cell wall synthesis by blocking enzymes that form peptide bridges.

How do tetracyclines work?

Bind 30S ribosome→ stop tRNA attachment→ protein synthesis blocked

How do fluoroquinolones work?

Inhibit topoisomerase→ stop DNA replication

How do sulfonamides work?

Compete w/ PABA → block folic acid synthesis in bacteria

How do bacteria share antibiotic-resistance genes?

Conjugation (sex pili)- most common, plasmid shared b/w bacteria

Transformation- uses free DNA from the environment

Transduction- bacteriophages (viruses) transfer genetic material b/w bacteria

Why shouldn’t antibiotics be overused?

Overuse causes antibiotic-resistant bacteria→ infections harder to treat

What is in the outer ear?

Pinna and the auditory canal

• Helps collect and direct sound

What is in the middle ear?

Tympanic membrane (eardrum) and ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)

• Helps amplify sound vibrations

What is in the inner ear?

Cochlea, cochlear nerve, vestibule & semicircular canals, and eustachian tube

• Controls hearing and balance (vertigo, hearing loss, and nausea)

Name the three ossicles

Malleus, incus, stapes hit the oval window to push the fluid to the cochlea

What does the eustachian tube do?

Balances pressure

What is conductive hearing loss?

problem in outer or middle ear

What is sensorineural hearing loss?

problem in the inner ear - damage to the cochlea or nerve

“permanent”

What does the Rinne test compare?

Bone conduction (mastoid process behind the ear)

Air conduction (next to the ear)

What shows conductive loss on an audiogram?

Bone conduction is at least 10 dB better than air conduction

What does p53 do in a cell?

It stops bad cells, helps fix DNA, or makes damaged cells die

What does the cell cycle do?

controls how cells grow, divide, and die

A gene that stops or fixes abnormal cells and causes them to die if needed

a tumor suppressor gene

A normal gene that helps cells grow

proto-oncogene

A mutated proto-oncogene that makes cells grow too fast→ cancer

an oncogene

What happens when proto-oncogenes mutate?

They turn into oncogenes and can cause cancer

What do BRCA1 and BRCA2 normally do?

they help protect cells and act like tumor suppressors

A short DNA sequence that repeats many times

Short tandem repeat (STR)

It’s the study of how your genes affect the way medicines work in your body

Pharmacogenetics

• their goal is to choose the best medicine for each person and avoid bad side effects

What is nano medicine?

using tiny particles to diagnose or treat diseases

How can nanoparticles help treat cancer?

they can find cancer cells and release medicine only on those cells