Psychology Exam 2

Inattentional blindness

Inattentional blindness

missing things right in front of us when we’re so focused on a task

Change blindness

missing changes in our environment

Priming

giving your brain a warm up for an idea without you knowing

Endogenous attention vs. exogenous

• Endogenous attention = you choose what to focus on

• Exogenous attention = something in the environment grabs your attention (like a loud noise or someone calling your name)

Automatic processing vs. controlled processing

• Automatic processing = autopilot

• Controlled processing = when we have to make a conscious effort

Neuroplasticity

our brains are constantly changing and rewiring based on our experiences

Sensation vs. perception

• You splash ginger beer on your skin, the sensation is the cold feeling and the smell of the soda

• Your brain telling you it’s ginger beer is perception

• Perception takes clues from our senses and pieces together what’s actually happening

Bottom-up processing vs. top-down processing

• Bottom-up processing = building a perception from the smallest pieces of sensory information

• Top-down processing = using existing knowledge to interpret sensory information

Transduction

the process of converting physical signals (light, sound, smell) into a language that the brain can understand

Absolute threshold

a minimum amount of a stimulus needed for you to notice it

Difference threshold

the smallest change you can detect in a stimulus

Weber’s Law

the stronger the original stimulus, the bigger the change needs to be for you to notice

Signal detection theory

detecting a stimulus is not only about its strength, but also distractions, your mood, and your own expectations

Sensory adaptation

our senses getting used to a constant stimulus

Multi-sensory integration

our brains are combining information from all our senses

Retina

• back of the eye, packed with specialized receptor cells (rods and cones)

• rods = handle low light vision

• cones = handle color and detail

Blind spot

where the optic nerve exits the eye, no rods or cones there

Trichromatic theory vs. opponent process theory

• Trichromatic theory = we have 3 types of cones in our retinas, each sensitive to red, green, or blue light

• Opponent process theory = we have cells that respond to pairs of colors

  • Red-green, blue-yellow, black-white

Gestalt principles of organization (figure ground, proximity, similarity, good continuation, common fate)

• Our brains have built in tendencies to group visual elements together based on certain principles

• Figure ground = we distinguish objects from their background

• Proximity = objects that are close together tend to be perceived as a group

• Similarity = objects that look alike get grouped together

• Good continuation = we see lines as continuing in a smooth path even when they’re interrupted

• Common fate = objects that move together are perceived as a group

Illusions

• Aims room = messes with our perception of size, uses distorted perspective to trick our brains (slanted walls, weirdly shaped windows)

• Ponzo illusion = uses depth cues to create a false perception

• Color constancy = allows us to recognize a familiar object as a color even if the color looks different

Binocular vs. monocular

• Binocular = require both eyes

  • Convergence = involves your eye muscles, the closer the object the more your eyes have to turn inward to focus on it

• Monocular = only requires one eye

  • Motion parallax = objects appear to move at different speeds based on their distance from the viewer

Retrograde amnesia vs. anterograde amnesia

• Retrograde amnesia = when people lose past memories

• Anterograde amnesia = when people lose the ability to form new memories

Implicit memory (procedural) vs. explicit memory (episodic and semantic)

• Implicit memory = unconscious stuff, auto-pilot

  • procedural memory = involves skills and habits

• explicit memory = conscious recall of facts and events, when we’re actively trying to remember things

  • episodic memory = for personal events

  • semantic memory = for general knowledge

Encoding

when a stimulus or event gets transformed into a memory

Schemas

mental frameworks that we use to organize information

Sensory memory vs. working memory

• Sensory memory = brief retention of sensory information

• Working memory = system that holds and manipulates information we need

Serial position effect

ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, such that items presented early or late in the list are remembered better than those in the middle

Consolidation

gradual process of memory storage in the brain

Flashbulb memories

a type of vivid and detailed memory that is formed during significant or emotionally charged events

Reconsolidation

the re-storage of memory after retrieval

Retrieval cue

any stimulus that promotes memory recall

Encoding specificity principle

our memories are strongest when the setting, mood, or other details are similar to those we experienced during the initial learning

Prospective memory

remembering to do something at some future time

Retrieval-induced forgetting

impairment of the ability to recall an item in the future after retrieving a related item from long-term memory

Proactive interference vs. retroactive interference

• Proactive interference = interference that occurs when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information

• Retroactive interference = interference that occurs when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information

Blocking

temporary inability to remember something

Absentmindedness

inattentive or shallow encoding of events

Persistence

continual recurrence of unwanted memories

Memory bias

changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes

Source misattribution

memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory

Source amnesia

a type of misattribution that occurs when people have a memory for an event but cannot remember where they encountered the information

Cryptomnesia

a person believes they are coming up with a new idea, thought, or memory, but they are actually recalling something they encountered before without realizing it

Suggestibility

a person’s memory or behavior can be influenced by others, especially through leading questions, cues, or even subtle hints

Primary emotions vs. secondary emotions

• Primary emotions = core basic ones, fear joy anger sadness

• Secondary emotions = more complex, a blend of primary emotions, guilt shame jealousy, influenced by our upbringing

Reappraisal

changing how you think about a situation

Common sense theory, James-Langue theory, Cannon-Bard theory, Two-factor theory

• Common sense theory = stimulus —> feel afraid —> body response (arousal)

  • “My heart is pounding because I feel afraid.”

• James-Langue theory = stimulus —> body response (arousal) —> feel afraid

  • “I feel afraid because my heart is pounding.”

• Cannon-Bard theory = stimulus —> body response (arousal) AND feel afraid

  • “The bear makes me feel afraid and my heart pounds.”

• Two-factor theory = stimulus —> body response (arousal) —> interpretation —> feel afraid

  • “My pounding heart means I’m afraid because I interpret the situation as dangerous.”

Display rules

rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable in given situations

Ideal affect

type of emotional state a person ideally wants to feel, or the emotions they value most and strive to experience