gender

Sex

The biological aspects of being male or female including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy.

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Gender

The psychological and cultural aspects of being male or female including attitudes, behaviours and social roles.

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Distinction between sex and gender

Sex can't change but gender can.

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Androgyny

Displaying a both typically masculine AND feminine characteristics in one's personality.

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How to measure androgyny

Bem's sex role inventory (BSRI)

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Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

Measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral) to produce a masculinity and femininity score which are compared.

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BSRI: Feminine category

High femininity, low masculinity scores.

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BSRI: Masculine category

High masculininty, low feminininity scores.

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BSRI: Androgynous category

High masculinity, high femininity scores.

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Evaluation of BSRI

* Good test retest reliability = individual's scores remain consistent when compared between repeated testing sessions i.e. there's a correlation between 0.76-0.94 between test scores over a 4 week period...
* Biased results= data may lack validity e.g. most of the adjectives used in the test are socially desirable, and so Ps may show bias in rating themselves...
* Outdated = lacks temporal validity e.g. the characteristics used are based on what students judged to be desirable in the 70s...
* Demonstrates a reductionist view of gender =oversimplifies gender related behaviours e.g. a person's masculinity & femininity are reduced to a single score...

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Sex-role stereotype

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society.

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How are sex role stereotypes formed?

Sex-role stereotypes may developed through observation, imitation and reinforcement (SLT); \n through development of cognitive awareness of gender, eg through the development of gender constancy (Kohlberg); \n or as part of the process of internalisation (Freud)

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Evidence for sex role stereotypes

Baby X study

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Baby X study

Ps left to interact with a baby for 3 minutes after being told it was male/female/not told. \n \n •When the baby was labelled female, Ps were more likely to use the doll to play with child; when baby was labelled male, Ps used plastic ring toy etc. \n = Adults interact differently with infants depending on whether they believe they are male or female.

Evaluation of Baby X study

•The findings have real life implications = because the behavior of the adults did not match up with how the adults described the baby i.e. their stereotypes affected their behavior unconsciously. \n \n •The actual baby was kept constant in all the conditions. This controlled for the behavior of the baby, making conclusions more valid i.e. it can be concluded that it was the adult's that guided the interaction rather than the baby's behaviour.

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AO3 points for sex role stereotypes

😊 Sex role stereotypes guide expectations. This means that they provide a cognitive short-cut e.g. by providing a basis to predict what behaviour may be expected from males and females... \n \n ☹ Sex role stereotypes have socially sensitive implications. This is because they impact the treatment of people in everyday life e.g. shaping/limiting academic/career expectations \n \n ☹ Research on sex role stereotypes may lack temporal validity. This is because they are changing as a result of changing norms e.g. norms have shifted towards less stereotypical child-rearing and gender neutrality, eg clothing, toys, décor etc ... \n \n ☹ Emphasising the role of sex role stereotypes on behaviour ignores the role of biology. This means the impact of hormones and genetics are not considered e.g. males' increased levels of testosterone may be more important in typical male aggression than sex role stereotypes..

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Biological explanation of gender

Differences in sex chromosomes (Males XY, females XX) cause gender differences.

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Atypical sex chromosome patterns

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms.

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Evidence for genetic explanation of gender

\-Atypical chromosome patterns: suggests that atypical sex chromosomes can cause changes in gender-related behaviour, as despite receiving typical fe/male upbringing, Ps demonstrate differences when compared to people with typical chromosomes. \n \n -Money: advised the parents to raise accidentally the penectomised Bruce as a girl with the help of plastic surgery. \n Despite initially being reported as a success, Bruce eventually went public & revealed that he had become a man again = biological sex causes gender to develop, as despite being raised as female, Bruce strongly identified with his birth sex.

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Turner's Syndrome

XO individual raised as female

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Traits of Turner's syndrome

In comparison to a typical female, demonstrate higher verbal ability, lower spatial ability, visual memory/maths skills, hypersensitivity & poor peer relations.

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Klinefelter syndrome

XXY individual raised as male

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Traits of Klinefelter's syndrome

in comparison to a typical male, have an extra X chromosome, genotype: XXY) demonstrate poor language skills in childhood, low reading ability, passive, shy & co-operative temperaments.

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Evaluation of evidence for genetic explanation of gender

Evidence on the effect of genes tends to come from case studies =what is revealed can't necessarily be generalised to normal gender development i.e. sample sizes are small, and often arise from unusual circumstances (for example Bruce had a twin brother, and did not have full female genital reconstruction, which may have led to the identification with the male gender)...

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Hormonal explanation of gender

Sex hormones cause gender related behaviour: TESTOSTERONE, OESTROGEN, OXYTOCIN.

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Evidence for effect of testosterone on gender

Dabbs et al (95) measured the amount of testosterone in 992 prisoners' saliva measured. Men with higher testosterone were more likely to have committed crimes involving sex and violence than men with low testosterone levels, & prison rule breaking was higher in high testosterone men. \n = sex influences gender, in this case, there is a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour.

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Evidence for effect of oestrogen on gender

Easteal reported some cases in which PMS has been accepted as a defence for court for crimes including shoplifting and even murder as it has been linked to increased emotionality, irritability and aggression. \n =that sex influences gender, in this case, fluctuations in oestrogen in during the course of the menstrual cycle correlates with uncharacteristically emotional behaviour in women.

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Evidence for effect of oxytocin on gender

Van Leengoed et al injected an oxytocin antagonist into female rats shortly after giving birth. Mothers showed a reduction in maternal behaviours, however normal behaviour was seen when the drug wore off. \n = sex influences gender, in this case, oxytocin seems to be responsible for triggering maternal behaviour.

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Evaluation of evidence for hormonal influence on gender

\-Experimental evidence on hormones comes from animal studies. = may not be appropriate to generalise the influence of hormones on animal behaviour to human behaviour e.g. human gender related behaviours may be subject to a wider range of influences from the more complex social environments we inhabit. \n HOWEVER. \n -It is unethical to perform hormone manipulation experiments on humans. = human evidence is correlational and therefore cannot establish cause and effect e.g. it could be the case that men with a body type indicating increased levels of testosterone may be expected to be more aggressive, and this could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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Evaluation of the biological explanation of gender

\-Deterministic= deny that we have any free will e.g. "anatomy is destiny", and therefore our behaviour is assumed to be directed by our biological sex, meaning that females are destined to be caregivers, and males to be competitive/aggressive, regardless of our personal preferences/goals... \n \n -Reductionist= simplify a complex behaviour such as gender to the simplest underlying biological mechanisms, may leading to the complexity of gender being ignored e.g. the role of cultural and media influences. \n \n -Mead showed cross cultural diversity in gender roles = refutes the biological explanation of gender i.e. sex differences are universal, and if these are the causes of gender differences, gender differences should be universal too. \n \n -Gender roles have changed over time =refutes the biological explanation of gender i.e. sex differences are constant over time, so if these are the causes of gender differences, gender differences should be universal too.

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Assumption of the cognitive explanation of gender development

A child's understanding of gender develops as part of an innate process, which is the same for every person. The specifics of the gender concepts children develop depend on family/cultural experiences.

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2 cognitive explanations

Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory \n Gender schema theory

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Assumption of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory

Children's understanding of gender develops with age in stages which are universal. This occurs as a function of general cognitive development.

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3 stages of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory

Gender identity \n Gender stability \n Gender constancy

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Gender identity

Acquired around age 2-3. The child recognises that they are a boy or a girl and possesses the ability to label others as such.

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Gender stability

Happens at around age 3-4. The child understands that their own gender is fixed and they will be male or female when they are older over TIME, but can still be fooled by appearance.

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Gender constancy

Usually reached by age 4-7. Knows a person's \n gender is stable over time and in different situations, despite superficial changes in appearance. Only at this point will children will actively seek out information about their gender e.g. by identifying with adult models.

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Evidence supporting Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory

1) Slaby and Frey asked children... \n • Gender identity qus e.g. is this a girl or a by doll? \n • Gender stability qus e.g. will you be a mummy or a daddy when you grow up? \n • Gender constancy qus e.g. would you be a boy or girl if you played with (opposite sex toy)? \n Results: Children aged 4-9 answered the questions in line with the age predictions made by Kohlberg. \n \n = understanding of gender develops in stages, according to their age, as children mature cognitively.

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Strengths of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory

\-Stages have been shown cross-culturally = theory is not ethnocentric i.e. the stages are biologically determined and therefore universal.

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Limitations of Kohlberg's gender schema theory

Very descriptive = it outlines the process of gender development rather that explaining how development occurs i.e. it lacks depth of explanation. \n \n -Developed using interviews of children as young as 2/3 = validity of the data may have been affected e.g. young children may lack communication skills to express their understanding or may misunderstand questions... \n \n -Evidence shows that children will play with same sex peers before age 2 = Kohlberg may have underestimated the age at children have some understanding of gender i.e. it suggests children have already gained an understanding of gender identity if they can identify same sex peers... \n \n -Evidence shows that children demonstrate stereotypical behaviours before they have reached gender constancy = refutes Kohlberg's theory i.e. children should only begin to learn the specifics of what is associated with their gender once they have reached constancy...(This supports gender schema theory...)

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Gender schema theory

AS SOON AS a child can identify their own sex, they actively seek out information to increase their understanding of gender. In the process they develop gender schemas: mental structures which hold our ideas about what is appropriate behaviour for males and females (e.g. behaviour, hobbies, personality traits, occupations). These influence the individual's behaviour.

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Process of gender schema formation

1\. Child 1st learns what things are associated with each sex (toys, activities and behaviour), and focuses on these. \n 2. Child makes links within the schema, to allow them to make predictions e.g. playing with dolls= person likely to have long hair and wear dresses. They can only do this for their own sex. \n 3. The child makes links for both sexes.

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Evidence for GST

Martin & Halverson showed 5/6 y.o.s pictures of people carrying out schema in/consistent activities. Children's recall of the pictures was tested a week later. \n Recall for gender consistent images was good. When gender inconsistent images were recalled, they were often distorted e.g. a boy playing with the gun. \n =supports GST as it demonstrates that children's perception/ memory is biased in accordance with stereotypes, suggesting gender schemas exist.

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Strengths of gender schema theory

\-GST explains why children often remain very rigid in their views concerning gender = gender schemas may bias them to focus only on things that confirm their schemas, and consequently, ignore examples that are contradictory.

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Limitations of gender schema theory

\-There is some evidence that once a child performs a non-stereotypical behaviour, they adjust their views on it = contradicts GST as it suggests that schemas are affected by behavior, whereas GST predicts the opposite i.e. gender schemas should guide behavior. \n \n -GST is very descriptive =outlines the process of gender development rather that explaining how development occurs i.e. it lacks depth of explanation. \n \n -GST is a reductionist theory = it reduces the complex concept of gender to the level of thought processes (this illustrates machine reductionism). e.g. it ignores the influence of biological factors.

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Assumption of psychodynamic explanation of gender

2 factors are important in explaining gender development: \n • Innate unconscious forces and \n • Childhood experiences

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How did Freud describe children before the phallic stage?

Bisexual

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Oedipus complex

In the phallic stage, a boy develops sexual interest in his mother. This leads to the fear that his father might castrate him if he discovered the boy's desire for his mother i.e. castration anxiety. To resolve the conflict, the boy represses his desire & IDENTIFIES with his father ("identification with the aggressor"), and thus INTERNALISES gender-related behaviours and attitudes of the same sex-parent

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Electra complex

In the phallic stage, a girl experiences penis envy. It leads to the girl desiring her father, as he has what she desires. As the girl cannot have a penis of her own, she converts this desire into a desire for a baby: the "penis-baby project". She desires that her father provide this baby (preferably a male baby). As she is anxious that her mother will find out she represses her desire & IDENTIFIES with her mother, and thus INTERNALISES gender-related behaviours and attitudes of the same sex-parent

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Identification (psychodynamic)

The first step in a child resolving their conflict at the phallic stage, wanting to be like their same-sex parent.

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Internalisation

The second step in a child resolving their conflict at the phallic stage, when they take on the gender identity of their same-sex parent.

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Evidence for the psychodynamic explanation of gender

Freud: Case study of "Little Hans" who had a phobia of horses. Freud asked the father to write and tell him about his son's development in order that he could interpret it. \n Hans was particularly afraid of large white horses with black blinkers and black around the mouth. He was terrified to leave the house in case a horse might either bite him or fall down.

\n =His anxiety represents unconscious castration anxiety which Hans was experiencing, especially as his father had black glasses and a black beard. The fear of the horse falling was the unconscious desire for his father to drop down dead

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Evidence against the psychodynamic explanation of gender

Green: gender roles studied of 3-20 year olds being brought up by homo/transsexual e.g. preferred games/toys/clothes/jobs. \n With the possible exception of one participant, all 34 had developed heterosexual preferences and conformed to cultural gender roles. \n =Appropriate gender development still takes place when there is no same-sex parent in the family, or when the family varies in some other way from a nuclear family. This contradicts Freud's predictions.

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Strengths of psychodynamic explanation of gender

\-Freud's evidence came from case studies. This means he was basing his theories on rich qualitative data e.g. detailed correspondence with Little Hans' father.

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Limitations of psychodynamic explanation

It may not be appropriate to generalise findings in the form of a theory to explain typical human gender development i.e. Little Hans' unusual behaviour is unlikely to be representative of all boys. \n \n -The mechanisms described, such as penis envy/ castration anxiety, are all unconscious = the explanation is unfalsifiable i.e. it is impossible to prove the theories wrong as they are not available for testing, and are therefore lacking in scientific status. \n \n -Evidence suggests that children show a preference for same sex playmates before the phallic stage = contradicts the explanation i.e. children should not identify as male or female until the conflict at the phallic stage has been resolved. \n \n -The account of female development is less developed than that of males' = theory is androcentric, demonstrating alpha bias e.g. For example, the notion of penis envy implies that women are inferior to men, which is not an idea with which many people would now agree.

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Assumption of SLT explanation of gender

Children learn by observing what types of attitudes & behaviours are associated with their gender.

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Stages of Social learning theory

Identification \n Modelling \n Imitation \n Vicarious Reinforcement

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Identification (SLT)

When an observer associates themselves with a same sex model and wants to be like the model

Modelling

A same sex model provides an example for the child for gender related behaviour.

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Imitation

Copying the gender related behaviour of another person

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Reinforcement

When behaviour becomes associated with a positive or negative response. If the response to the behaviour is positively reinforces, it is more likely to be repeated (can occur vicariously)

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Mediational processes

Thought processes between observing model and imitation e.g. children more likely to imitate models who are perceived to be attractive, similar (esp gender), high status etc.

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Evidence for SLT

Fagot observed parents with a child under 2, including their use of praise & "telling off" for different behaviours. \n Girls were praised when for dressing up/ staying close to their parent and asked for help & discouraged from rough and tumble play. Boys were praised for playing with bricks and transportation toys, and discouraged from playing with dolls. \n = Children learn to behave according to stereotypes through being reinforced for typical behaviour and punished for behaviour which is atypical.

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Strength of SLT explanation of gender

\- Mead showed cross cultural differences in gender related behavior = strengthens the theory i.e. the fact that gender related behavior isn't universal (see cultural influences for specifics) supports the notion that it is learned from models rather than being biological,

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Limitation of SLT of gender

\-Reductionist= biological factors are not considered to be important e.g. there is a wealth of scientific evidence on the influence of biological factors such as sex chromosomes and hormones on gender which is not taken into account.

\n -Many cultures have similar traditional gender stereotypes =theory can't explain how traditional gender stereotypes originate e.g. it is likely that biological factors are the origin for behaviours such as nurturing behaviour in women, and social learning processes act to reinforce these behaviours. \n \n -Many people display gender "inappropriate" behaviours despite lack of reinforcement =contradicts the theory i.e. boys who receive bullying for displaying feminine traits would be predicted to cease demonstrating this behaviour, when in fact they often don't, suggesting biological factors override the effects of reinforcement. \n \n -Many studies of modelling involve children imitating the model immediately after observing them, in the same context = results many be confounded by the effects of demand characteristics i.e. in such studies, it may be obvious what the experimenter expects, which children may conform to.

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What theory can you use to explain how media/culture influences gender roles?

Social Learning Theory

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Culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

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What can cross cultural research demonstrate about gender roles

It reveals differences whether there between cultures there are differences in gender related behaviour suggesting the role of nurture can override nature.

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Evidence for cultural influences on gender roles

) Mead lived with & observed behaviour of M&F in 3 tribes in New Guinea for 6m: \n Arapesh: both M&F showed stereotypically (western) feminine traits e.g. caring behaviour. \n Mundugamor: both M&G showed stereotypically male behaviour e.g. aggression. \n Tchambuli: M&F demonstrated distinctive gender roles but the reverse of western expectations (F practical, M flirtatious and decorating bodies to attractiveness. \n =cultural influences shape the expression of gender, overriding biological influences which would be universal.

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Evaluation of research on cultural influences on gender roles

✔Increasing globalization is likely to reduce x-cult differences. This is because models are becoming universal e.g. celebrities who are famous all around the world. \n \n x Mead had a strong belief that gender roles were socially constructed = her interpretations of the tribes hay have been biased, limiting the validity of her conclusions e.g. later researchers have disagreed with her interpretations. \n \n x Cross cultural research may exaggerate x-cult. differences= research demonstrates there are more similarities than differences in in the way it is viewed e.g. Williams and Best found high agreement between 27 cultures on which of 300 words were associated with being masc./fem. \n \n x An interactionist approach to explaining the influence of culture may be more valid = there may be bio factors which provide the basis of gender related behaviour, but specifics are down to the individual's culture e.g. reinforced through a social learning

Media

The expression of culture on a large scale e.g. through TV/social media platforms.

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Evidence for media influences on gender roles

McGee and Frueh: in longitudinal study over 15 months it was found that children 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours of TV a week held more sex-stereotype perceptions than those who watched 10 or less hours. \n =the presentation of stereotypical gender roles may lead to children holding more rigid stereotypes.

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Evaluation of evidence on media influences on gender roles

✔Research has practical applications, suggesting that it is possible to produce an intervention to reduce effects of stereotyping e.g. Johnson and Ettema showed 12 year olds a tv programme designed to counter traditional stereotypes, and both boys and girls showed reduced gender stereotyping afterwards. \n \n x Much gender development occurs before a child is 4 = the influence of the media may have been exaggerated i.e. before age 4, a child's family are more likely to be a source of influence than the media

\n x Research doesn't establish the direction of cause and effect = media may just reflect prevailing stereotypes rather than shaping them.

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What is the disorder characterised by ATYPICAL gender development

Gender Dysphoria

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Gender dysphoria

Atypical gender development: people experience a conflict between their biological sex and their gender identity. \n \n For a diagnosis, this must persist for 6m+ and cause the individual distress or impaired functioning. \n \n Most dysphoria occurs in childhood (2-4yrs) and doesn't persist beyond puberty.

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Biological explanation for GD

There are neurobiological differences in people with GD which lead to their dysphoria perhaps caused by overexposure to androgens in the uterus, causing masculinisation of bio Fs and vice versa, or genetics.

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Evidence for a biological explanation of GD

 Ning Zhou et al studied the "bed nucleus of the striate terminalis" (BSTc- an area of the thalamus which is 40% bigger in males than females by age 5). \n In dead MtF transgender individuals, the BSTc was a similar size to that in a female brain. \n = there are neural correlates with GD, with males appearing to have a brain more typical of a biological female, which may be associated with their gender dysphoria.

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Evaluation of the biological explanation of GD

\-Practical applications = it lends itself to methods of reducing gender dysphoria e.g. Green and Fleming found that the treatment of individuals with GD by hormone therapy was successful in 87% of FtM cases and 97% of MtF in reducing feelings of dysphoria. \n \n -There is a lack of continuity between childhood and adulthood GD. This refutes the biological explanation i.e. if GD is genetic, it should persist, as genetics remains constant. \n \n -Evidence can't establish cause and effect = much of the evidence is correlational e.g. differences in brains may have developed as a result of environmental influences from seeking out experiences more typical of the opposite sex. \n \n -Deterministic = GD patients are seen to be at the mercy of their biology i.e. denying any choice they may have in becoming accepting of their biological sex.

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Social explanation of GD

There are factors in the social environment of the individual during their early development which leads to gender dysphoria.

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Evidence for a social explanation of GD

Zucker et al: 115 boys with concerns about their gender identity and their mothers: of the boys who were eventually diagnosed with GD, 64% were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder. Of the boys whose symptoms were subclinical, 38% were diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder. \n =the child may fantasise about a "symbiotic fusion" with his mother to relieve his anxiety about separation, and therefore "becomes" his mother. This occurs at a subconscious level.

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Evaluation of social explanation of GD

X The explanation has only been applied to MtF transsexuals = social explanations demonstrate gender bias i.e. beta bias, by ignoring the possibility that FtM transsexuals are subject to different factors.

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Overall evaluation of GD research

X GD affects relatively few individuals = the data set is limited i.e. are potentially very few Ps to include in samples, meaning any sample may be unrepresentative of the GD population as a whole. \n \n X The explanations of GD seek to explain "GD" as a homogenous disorder. This may be oversimplistic e.g. Blanchard proposed that some GD MtF patients wish to change sex because they are homosexual and some who wish to change because they are autogynephilic (aroused by thinking about themselves as a woman), demonstrating there may be sub-types of GD. \n \n X The findings of GD research are socially sensitive. This means that understanding the cause of GD has implications for the way that GD is treated e.g. increasing understanding may reduce the stigma around the condition.

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Biological vs psychodynamic explanation comparison

•They agree that there are innate aspects to gender. \n •However, P argues that childhood experiences are important too. \n •B has theories that are testable; P doesn't.

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Biological vs SLT comparison

•Nature (B) vs. nurture (SLT) \n •SLT can explain cross cultural differences and changes over time in gender behaviour; B can't. \n •B can explain why Bruce couldn't be socialised as a girl; SLT can't.

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Biological vs cognitive comparison

•C would argue that B is reductionist by ignoring the role of thought processes. \n •C argues that B is too deterministic as they say children have an active role in their own gender development.

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Psychodynamic vs cognitive comparison

•Agree that gender develops in age related stages. \n •C argues that gender development occurs later than P.. \n C argues that gender develops over time whereas P argues it develops in one fell swoop.

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Psychodynamic vs SLT comparison

•P argues that SLT is too reductionist by focusing entirely on behaviour and ignoring unconscious processes. \n •SLT argues that children identify with any number of models at any time, whereas P argues that they only identify with the same sex parent at the phallic stage. \n •SLT can explain why gender development occurs normally in single parent families; P can't.

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Cognitive vs SLT comparison

•C argues that gender develops in stages whereas SLT says it can develop at any age, depending on experiences. \n •SLT argues that role models are needed for gender development, whereas C argues that children only seek out role models after gender has been established.