APUSH torture

1.2 Native American Societies before European Contact 

• Native cultures were diverse 

  • The indigenous people that populated the Americas were very different from each other in language, culture, customs, economics, etc.

  • Some groups lived in nomadic hunter-gatherer bands while others lived in massive cities while others lived in semi-permaneant settlements 

    • Cultivation of Maize 

      • First cultivated in Central Mexico and became a stable crop throughout the people in the Americas

      • Built more complex societies

      • Sedentary agriculture (planted everything in one spot) 

      • Effects 

        • Economic Development 

          • Trade networks developed between societies

        • Permanent Settlements 

          • Agriculture requires staying in one place

        • Advanced Irrigation Techniques

          • Better irrigation = more food

          • More food = more babies

        • Social diversification 

          • As a settlement becomes bigger and more complex, labor become more specialized and social hierarchies are adopted.

• The Great Basin and Great plains 

• hot/dry climate.

• Developed a nomadic lifestyle. (mobility is going to occur via horses; introduced by Europeans soon). 

• Small societies lived here (far apart from each other), needed a great deal of land to hunt/gather. 

  • Men hunted deer, antelope, rabbits; women gathered berries, roots.

• The Ute people lived in Mobile shelters (Tepee) in groups of 20-100

• Moved with seasons, didnt want to deplete resources in any one area

Indigenous groups who lived in the East (Northeast, Mississippi, and the Atlantic Coast) → Created much larger and complex societies, better environment for farming

• Mississipian culture: Hopewell people. 

  • Had an abundance of soil around the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys

  • Large societies with 4-6k population

  • Traded via rivers (Canada/Florida). 

  • Maize led to complex civilizations, social hierarchy developed where the elite gained control over the common laborers. 

  • Mound Builders – Example: Cahokia (10-20k people; env dictated fabulous agricultural growth). Gave insights into religious traditions and organization of labor, class system.

• Iroquois (Northeast)

• Semi-Sedentary 

• Used timber to build longhouses (Multiple generations of people lived here

• Created the Iroquois Confederacy: alliance of multiple Indigenous groups in the area including the Mohrawk, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. 

  • Formed a council of representatives–settled beef between rival groups that would otherwise lead to war. Facilitated trade partnerships. 

• Cherokees (Atlantic Coast)

• Maize, beans, squash in 1000 BCE

• Agricultural society 

• Semi-sedentary 

  • Men hunted for meat

  • Women grew crops (more social capital than Europeans). Societies were matrilineal. 

• Chinook/Chumash (Pacific Coast)

• Did not practice agriculture 

• Hunters/Gatherers

• Built Large Permaneant Settlements

  • Abundance of food from the oceans

1.3 European Exploration in the Americas

• Causes of European Exploration 

  • Europe Stabilizes 

    • Prior to this, Europe was destabilized and weak compared to Asian empires that were dominant. Europes population devastated due to the black plague and experienced hard times agriculturally during the little ice age period 

    • Climate Warmed

    • Improve Agricultural Productivity 

      • Aided by new farming techniques and technology 

    • More food = More Babies 

    • Desire for Asian Luxury Goods (trade on world market)

    • The Renaissance (cultural rebirth)

    • Political Unification (strengthened the government)

• Motives for European Exploration 

• GOLD / Economic Motives

  • Demand for Eastern Luxury Goods 

    • After the Ottoman Empire conquered Constaninople, they basically cut off Europe’s trade with Asia, particularly in the Silk Road. 

    • Started sea-based travel

  • Improved Banking Systems

    • Helped facilitate trade 

  • Portugal was First

    • Prince Henry the Navigator sailed across Africa to gain the riches of the Indian Ocean Trade 

    • Vasco de Gama was the first to sucessfully sail around the Cape of Good Hope and establish Portugal’s presence. Established trading posts all around the African coast and throughout the Indian Ocean. Build a trading post empire.

  • Spain came along 

    • Christopher Columbus asked the monarchs King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to fund an expedition westward across the Atlantic Ocean. The monarchs wanted Columbus to spread Christianity in Asia (reassert Catholic dominance)

    • Landed in the Carribean, convinced it was Asia. 

• GOD / Religious Motives

  • Dominant Belief System: Christianity 

    • Roman Catholic Christianity. The Roman Catholic Church played a significnat role in creating European common culture 

  • Simony 

    • Buying and selling of important church positions 

  • Sale of Indulgences

    • The exchange of money for forgiveness of sins

    • Helped the elite maintain their power 

  • Catholic Christianity vs Protestant Christianity 

    • No seperation of church and state

    • Led to political feuds and power struggles (series of religious wars)

    • Martin Luther

      •  Wrote a series of complaints about the corrupted elements of the Church (95 theses). Launched Protestant Reformation → Let to a permaneant split in the Christan church

  • Spain’s Kingdoms Combine

    • Muslims have controlled the Iberian Penninsula. Spanish have gradually taken territory from them overtime – Muslims onluy controlled Emirate of Grenada

    • Marriage of Isabella of Catile and Ferdinand II of Aragon

    • Reconquista 

      • Finally ousted the Muslims from Catholic Spain

    • Inquisition 

      • Eliminated religious dissent in Spain 

      • Expelled 200k Jews from Spain

• GLORY / Political Motives

  • Competition for Colonial Possessions

    • Wanted to shift balance of power in their favor 

    • Political change was occurring in some European states in which large, multi-ethnic empires were breaking apart while small kingdoms were uniting and becoming more powerful (Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain)

  • New Political Reality: The Nation-State 

    • Political entity that governs a single, unified people 

      • Promotes fierce competition to become the most powerful

      • Protestant Reformation added a religious element to this competition

  • Spain vs Portugal 

    • Armed conflict but resolved through diplomacy

    • Because they were both Catholic states, pope settled dispute 

      • Drew line of demarcation to settle New World territory questions. Treaty of Tordesillas—established Portugal’s claim to part of Brazil and Spain’s claim to every other part of the Americas.

1.4 Columbian Exchange & Spanish Conquest

• Increased Trade: Causes

• Improvements in Maritime Technology

  • Europeans borrowed from Chinese and Muslim Emperors

  • Caravel: fast and highly navigable ship (contained lateen sail which could take wind from both sides)

  • Magnetic Compass: Gave accurate reckoning of direction

  • Astrolabe: Gave accurate reckoning of lines of latitude 

• Joint-Stock Companies

  • Limited liability businesses 

  • Chartered by state & funded by investors

  • Basically people with money could invest in exploration

    • States had limited funds to invest in such risky ventures (high probability of failure)

    • So to solve the problem, money came from a pool of investors that shared risk

    • Relied on state for safety and monopolies 

  • Multiplied expeditions and created more trade routes around the world. 

• Increased Trade: Effects

• Columbian Exchange: transfer of diseases, plants, animals, minerals, and people between the Old and New Worlds.

  • Diseases → Europeans were immune; deadly to natives. Referred to as Great Dying

    • Smallpox introduced by the Spanish spread through Mexico and Central America. Killed half of indigenous population (Taino).

    • Measles introduced by Spanish, just as deadly as Smallpox 

  • Food & Plants → Had major effects on both Old and New Worlds. The introduction of new foods created the occasion for a new varied diet, which meant healthier populations. Led to Europe’s post-1700 population explosion

    • Europeans: wheat, olives, grapes which were staples of European diets. Eventually introduced African and Asian foods like rice, bananas, and sugar

    • Indigenous: Maize, potatoes, manioc

    • Enslaved Africans also brought new foods like okra 

  • Animals 

    • Horses had the most significant impact to the Americas

      • People in the Great Plains (Apaches, Comanches, Kyas) had more effective means to hunt large herds of buffalo, which was a staple food item. 

      • Those who adopted horses had advantage over those that did not (shifted balance of power)

    • Pigs, sheep, cattle

      • Multiplied quickly. 

      • Sheeps ate grass→ caused erosion that affected Indigenous farmers

      • Pigs and Cattle → had a habit of trampling and eating indigenous crops 

  • Minerals

    • Spanish empires plundered Aztec and Inca Empires for their massive quantities of Silver and Gold (made Spain real rich)

      • Enslaved indigenous people extracted silver in Potosi

    • Export of Cash crops was highly profitable

    • Caused the Price Revolution → Prices for European goods rose steadily for 150 years

    • Caused shift from Fedualism to Capitalism

      • Fedualism: A social and economic system that created a closed system focused on land ownership 

      • Capitalism: A social and economic system that created a more open system focused on manufacturing and trade

1.5 Spanish Empire in the Americas

• Spain takes over 

  • Columbus tried to get the Spainards who were with him to build houses and towns, over which Columbus aimed to rule as governor. However, Spainards just wanted gold → conquered numerous islands in the Carribean 

  • King Ferdinant and Queen Isabella issued Requrimiento 

    • Legal document claiming Spain possessed biblical authority to rule in the Americas

    • Threatened violence to indigenous groups that defied that order

    • Read in Spanish

      • Example of Spanish attempting to justify themselves their right to conquer and pillage in the Americas

    • Hernan Cortes claimed Aztec empire for Spain

      • Although the Aztecs initially, resisted Cortes had two advantages 

        • Spanish diseases (Smallpox) weakened Aztecs. Made them vulnerable to attack 

        • Allied with indigenous groups under Aztec rule. Fought alongside the Spanish to secure their own liberation

    • Francisco Pizarro defeated and conquered the Inca Empire. 

• Spanish Labor Systems

• Encomienda System

  • System of coerced labor in which the Spanish crown granted tracts of land to Spanish encomenderos who forced the indigenous people within its borders into mining and plantation-based agriculture 

  • Emcomenderos required indigenous people to work for them → in return, they had to provide protection and Christianization (justification). But it was basically slavery

  • Spanish crown enacted the New Laws in 1542 in an attempt to curb encomendero’s power and mitigate harsh treatment of indigenous workers

• Two sources of Wealth 

  • Mining for gold and silver

  • Export of cash crops (sugar cane, tobacco, cotton)

• Indigenous Labor breaks down

  • Enslaved workers knew the land much better than Spanish

    • Allowed for frequent escapes

  • Indigenous workers kept dying from Spanish diseases

• Importation of Enslaved Africans

  • Worked the mines and plantations

  • Spanish merchants partnered with West Africans groups

    • Traded goods like guns for enslaved laborers. Many elite Africans became wealthy and powerful owing to the superior weaponry they gained i9n trading with the Europeans. 

    • Increased demand of African saves, increased necessity for African warfare and the capture of slaves

  • Middle Passage

    • People were crammed onto ships like cargo and the death rate was 20% → spread of disease and malnutrition

    • Once they arrived, they were sold to the Spanish

      • Africans less likely to escape (didn’t know the land in the Americas)

      • Africans had been in contact with European diseases (better immunity)

• New Spain - New Society 

• Caste/Casta System

  • No traditional Spanish Nobility in New World (elites did not travel)

    • Spanish conquistadores imposed new social hierarchy on the people of the New World

• Organized colonial society into a ranked social hierarchy

  • Based on race and heredity 

  • More ‘white’ blood = more social power (Top → Europeans)

  • Less ‘white’ blood = less social power (Bottom → Indigenous and Africans)

• Erased cultural complexity 

  • Ordered society by standards of small minority

  • Category dictated education, occupation, tax payments, etc.

  • Altered spatial makeup of towns and villages (only Europeans had access to the inerwards church; indigenous were forced to live on the outerwards)

 1.6 How Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans Shaped Each Other

• As contact between the Europeans and the various indigenous peoples of the Americas increased, they asserted divergent worldviews 

  • Worldview: A people's constellation of cultural experiences—their history, belief system, language, etc—that dictates how people make sense out of the world’s people and events

  • People think their worldview is the best → when they encounter other people with differing worldviews, the instinct tends to be that they’re enemies (ETHNOCENTRISM). 

Differing Worldviews 

	Land Use	Religion	Gender Roles	Family Structure
Europeans	Land could be owned by individuals	Christian; complex set of dogmas/doctorines → Belief in a single god	Patriarchal	Nuclear Family
Indigenous Peoples	Land contained a spiritual quality; belonged to all people	Belief in gods and spirits. No seperation of spiritual and material world.	More Egalitarian (equal roles of gender). Some societies were even matrilineal	Lived together in extended families (multiple generations)

• Misunderstanding & Cultural Adoption 

  • In some cases, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture 

    • Indigenous people converted to Christianity 

      • largely due to Spanish effort to establish Christian missions in southwest North America (brutal tactics)

      • As the indigenous were polutheistics, they saw no conflict in adding Christian god to worship of other gods

      • Also saw a motivation to convert when they saw the Spanish were unaffected by diseases killing indigenous populations

    • Indigenous people adapted Christianity 

      • Syncretism: adapting to own worldview 

      • Ex; Virgin of Guadalupe → goddess 

    • Europeans Adopted Aspects of Indigenous Culture

      • English settlers learned local agriculture techniques 

      • French settlers intermarried with indigenous women to benefit fur trade relations

  • Indigenous Resistance

    • Diplomacy 

      • Native Americans defended themsleves from Europeans by allying with them against other native groups

    • Violence through MIlitary Resistance

      • Taino Rebellion → Native people of modern day Puerto Rico rebelled against the Spanish. Tired of butal encomienda system and threat to their traditional customs. Succesful in the begining because the Taino were more numerous than the Spanish. However, due to superior weaponry, the Spanish won the rebellion.

  • Racial Debates (Spain)

    • Valladolid Debates

      • Bartolome de Las Casas: 

        • Was previously a conquistador in the Americas, owned land and indigenous slaves as an encomendero and fought in a way against Indigenous groups. 

        • However, he changed his views (clergymen) and argued that indigenous people were fully human and should not be subjected to inhumane encomienda system. 

        • Still had a paternilistic view of indigenous peoples– saw them as uncivilized and needed European intervention 

      • Juan Ginés de Supilveda

        • Argued indigenous peoples were less than human

        • Subjugation and brutality helped transform them into full humanity

        • Helped the Spanish justify their harsh treatment of Indigenous

      • Curse of Ham 

        • From the book of Genesis in the Bible. 

        • Ham was one of the sons of Noah; Noah cursed Ham and said that he and all of his descendants will be servants all their days.

        • Basically said Africans were the descendants of Ham → justified in enslaving them. 

2.2 How Europeans Colonized the America

PPP - Power, Partnership, Partition 

• Spanish

  • Sought colonial wealth through authoritarian power and control over indigenous peoples 

  • Main Goal: Extract Wealth 

    • Minerals like gold and silver

    • Cash crops with enslaved labor

  • Tactic #1: Native Subjugation

    • Encomienda System 

    • Hacienda System

      • Became main spanish labor system in the Americas

      • Encomenderos owned large tracts of land. 

      • Indigenous laborers were “not technically” enslaved

      • Laborers tied to land in debt-repayment system

  • Tactic #2: Christian Conversion 

    • Don Juan de Onate subdued Pueblo peoples 

      • established the capital of Santa Fe  

      • Missionaries came behind him to set up the mission system. 

        • Spanish intended to erase and refine the entire culture of Indigenous. They didn’t like how they mixed Christianity with their own religions.

        • Pueblo Revolt of 1680→ Killed hundreds of Spaniards, destroying churches, reestablishing their own customs. However, the Spanish eventually returned to assert dominance. 

  • Tactic #3: New Social Order

    • Caste system

      • Created a social hierarchy 

      • Status was determined by the amount of “white blood”

• French & Dutch 

  • Sought colonial wealth through partnership with indigenous people

  • French 

    • Samuel De Champlain founded the first permanent French settlement in Quebec. 

    • French emphasis in the Americas was not on establishing permanent settlements, but rather on growing wealthy through trade partnerships with various indigenous people groups, especially trade in fur.

    • Negotiated Alliances 

      • De Champlain negotiated alliances with the Huron people of the St. Lawrence River Valley against the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois)

      • Beaver Fur Trade: By allying with the American Indian groups as well as intermarrying with them, French fur trappers were able to satisfy the growing demand among the French elite for this precious item.

    • Missionaries

      • Not many conversions as they did not use brute force

  • Dutch 

    • Sent Henry Hudson to explore America, looking for a northwest passage through the Americas to Asia. Established colony of New Amsterdam

    • Was not interested in reshaping indigenous societies 

    • New Amsterdam became a significant trading port—attracted merchants from all over the world

• Britain

  • Sought wealth by partitioning, or separating, themselves from indigenous peoples

  • Economic Prosperity

    • First established Colony: Jamestown (1607)

      • Mainly populated by single young men looking for gold. 

      • Many starved. Wasn’t until when the colony started focusing on the export of tobacco that the wealth started flowing in

      • British did best to separate themselves from indigenous people 

  • Social Mobility 

    • People had limited upward mobility in Britain

    • Primogeniture Laws

      • Only the oldest son could legally inherit land

      • Younger brothers looked to the New World for land and better social standing. Joint-Stock companies contributed to this

  • Religious Freedom

    • King Henry VII declared Britain to be a protestant state with himself to be the head of the Church. Church of England / Anglican Church known for seeking a "middle way" between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism

      • Puritans & Separatists 

        • Had a lot in common 

        • Defined by the Calvinist flavor of the Protestant movement

        • Puritans believed that the church could be reformed, or purified, from the inside, by remaining part of it

        • Separatists believed that the church was hopeless and therefore the true protestant church could only be formed from the outside, by separating from the Anglican Church

          • A group of separatists → pilgrims departed for the new world in family groups to find religious freedom. Landed in Plymouth Bay and established a new colony in 1620.

            • Goal: Establish a god-centered society where they could worship freely

            • Accepted indigenous help at first but eventually attempted to live separately 

  • Improved Living Conditions 

    • Rapid population growth

    • Parliament passed enclosure laws

      • Allowed landlords to claim public land for livestock

    • Limited access to the Commons 

      • Commons→ available to all people to graze their animals

      • Vital resource to poor citizens who had no land of their own 

2.3 Regions of the British Colonies Compared

• New England

  • Deeply religious 

  • Rocky soil / harsh winters = limited agriculture 

  • Church-centered communities 

  • Exported fish & lumber 

  • Plymouth Settlement 

    • Founded by a group of Separatists (Pilgrims)

      • Left Great Britain to pursue religious freedom and economic opportunity

      • Migrated as whole family groups (came to create a society)

      • Wanted society to operate in line with Christian principles

        • Church = State

      • Signed the Mayflower Compact → agreement to form a simple government that ruled by the will of the majority, democratic style of government

        • Created the conditions for self-government in the new colony

        • Only elite adult males could participate in  government 

      • Adopted agriculture to establish society

        • First few years, many people died (separated themselves from the indigenous), eventually they accepted help from the indigenous people who taught them agricultural techniques

      • Exported lumber, beaver felt, and fish

  • Massachusetts Bay Colony

    • Settled by family groups

    • Organized government and society according to Bible 

    • John Winthrop: Governor. Said Massachusetts Bay Colony would be a “city upon a hill”. Wanted the colony to be a perfect model.

    • All free (strong Puritan ideology), property-owning men could vote on policy

      • Larger proportion than back in England

      • Debated policies in town hall meetings 

      • Majority-rule

    • Soon the Massachusetts Bay Colony merged with the Plymouth Settlement

      • However, not everyone agreed with the religious intolerance – had to be Puritan 

        • Roger Williams: Puritan minister, did not support merging of church and state, religious tolerance = better society. Banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony but later founded  Rhode Island

        • Anne Hutchenson: Woman – society declared men spiritually superior, believed everyone had equal access to Holy Spirit inspiration. Went on teaching these things, but she was also banished and joined Roger Williams on Rhode Island

• Middle Colonies

  • Good soil = booming agriculture 

  • Diverse population due to religious tolerance / economic opportunity 

  • Less participatory than New England, more participatory than South

  • New York 

    • Previously a Dutch Colony (New Amsterdam)

    • Became a thriving commercial seaport due to abundance of rivers and seaports 

    • River valleys + rich soil = valuable grain exports 

    • Diverse group of European Immigrants, arrived seeking better economic opportunities 

  • Pennsylvania 

    • Refuge for Quaker and religious dissenters

    • Quakers - targeted for religious marginalization. Emphasized individual religious experience. Pacifists = no military. Refused to support clergy with taxes. 

      • Treated indigenous populations with dignity 

        • Emphasized equitable diplomacy

    • Guaranteed freedom of worship

    • Democratic 

      • Policy decisions made by elected, representative assembly 

    • Economic sector grew rapidly

      • Exported grain and other crops

  • New Jersey 

    • Royal Colony: Colony in which the governor & the council are appointed directly by the monarch

  • Delaware 

• Chesapeake & North Carolina

  • Warmer weather = sprawling plantations 

    • Main export: tobacco

  • Expanded westward and clashed with indigenous peoples

  • House of Burgesses = step toward democracy. Politics ruled by small group of elite planters

  • Dominant source of labor: enslaved Africans

  • Jamestown 

    • Main goal: $$$ 

      • Migrants were single men looking for quick profit 

      • Many first settlers starved to death

    • John Rolfe: led colonists to plant and harvest tobacco

      • Created insatiable demand in Great Britain

      • Led to development of plantation-style plots

      • More agricultural than its northern neighbors

      • Most work was done by indentured servants, but African indentured servants were sold and eventually African slavery replaced indentured servitude as a main labor system

    • House of Burgesses

      • Acted as a representative government

      • Inspired later forms of self-government

      • Limited to propertied, white men

  • North Carolina was a royal colony as well

• Southern & British West Indies

  • Large, plantation-style agriculture with enslaved Africans

  • Rigid social hierarchy enforced by race laws

  • Politics restricted to small group of elite planters

  • British West Indies

    • The Bahamas 

    • Jamaica

    • Barbados

  • Highest concentration of enslaved labor 

    • Geographically proximal to equator. Long growing seasons. Profitable crop = sugarcane 

    • Geography defined by large plantations

    • Increased demand for sugar = more laborers

      • Enslaved Africans outnumbered white colonists 4:1

    • Barbados Slave Codes

      • Series of laws that stripped all rights from black workers

      • Granted white planters complete power over laborers

  • South Carolina (Royal Colony)

    • Specialized economically in the fur trade. 

    • Provided food for the population of the West Indies

    • Mirrors BWI

      • Focused on rice and indigo cultivation

      • These enslaved Africans fought to preserve their own cultural and religious autonomy in opposition to all the efforts of planters to dehumanize them 

        • West African slaves refused to accept Christianity

        • Syncretized Christianity with their native belief system, Vodun

    • Rigid social hierarchy

      • Top: wealthy planters

      • Middle: common white planters

      • Bottom: dominant black population

        • Elite planters dominated local politics (massive amounts of land)

    • Georgia

      • British colony

      • Protective buffer between Spanish Florida and widely profitable Carolinas

2.4 The Trans-Atlantic Trade

• Triangular Trade (Economic Interdependence)

  • New England → Rum → West Africa

  • West Africa → Enslaved Laborers → West Indies

  • West Indies → Sugar Cane → New England 

• Effects 

  • Colonial economics focused on producing high-demand commodities 

    • Often focused nearly entire economy on these exports

    • Sugarcane introduced to the Carribean 

      • Good soil and warm climate facilitated long growing seasons. 

      • Began to dominate colonial economies in Barbados and Jamaica
        As demand increased, island colonies became entirely devoted to its production

  • Increased demand for enslaved laborers

    • Forced to do the intensive work of planting and harvesting

      • Large scale of this work was done by enslaved Africans, American Indians also provided labor

    • Many laborers died due to harsh working conditions 

      • Further increased demand for enslaved labor

• Effects of Mercantilism – Drove Trans-Atlantic Trade

  • Mercantilism: An economic system that emphasized a favorable balance of trade [ exports (sell) > imports (buy) ] 

  • Mercantilist states measured wealth in terms of gold and silver

    • Exports bring gold in 

    • Imports send gold out

  • In the mercantilist system, the whole purpose of establishing colonies was to enrich the mother state

    • American colonies often governed independently of Britain because of Atlantic ocean; however Great Britain forced them to serve the imperial economy (stripped colonies of their autonomy → made economic decisions that best served Britain)

      • Navigation Acts 

        • Imported goods had to be taxed through English ports

        • Traded goods had to be transported on English ships 

        • Highly valuable goods could only be exported to England

        • Soon colonists realized they could ignore the Navigation Acts without punishments (salutary neglect)

  • Dominion of New England 

    • Supercolony

    • King-appointed governor was above colonial elected assemblies 

    • Governor appointed local officials to replace elected officials 

    • Easier for crown to have higher control over colonial policies and trade enforcement 

    • Led to Glorious Revolution

      • Parliament overthrew King James and reestablished their own governmental pattern

      • William and Mary agreed to rule in accordance with the increased power of the parliament 

      • Rebellions broke out in colonies upon hearing of revolution

        • Dominion of New England Collapsed 

        • Elected colonial assemblies returned

  • Effects of American Indians

    • Colonists introduced European Goods to indigenous people 

      • Metal tools, firearms, horses

        • Power dynamics shifted towards indigenous groups that received guns 

    • Spread of Diseases

      • Smallpox and measles

        • Led to mass death of indigenous peoples 

    • Increased dependance on European Goods 

      • Made them vulnerable to manipulation and internal division

        • Bacon’s Rebellion 

          • A group of poor indentured servants began attacking American Indian groups.

          • Attacked the governor William Berkeley who fled from his attackers. Berkeley ensured support from the British navy and eventually put down the rebellion

          • After the Glorious Revolution and the mounting expenses of continually getting involved with managing colonial disputes, Parliament began to loosen its grip on some of these policies that aimed to tighten their control over the colony

2.5 American Indians vs Europeans

• When Europeans first arrived:

  • Mutual Confusion

  • Spanish Brutality 

    • Indigenous people attacked colonial settlements (ex; Virginia – Bacon’s Rebellion)

    • Complicated the relationship between European colonists and American Indians 

• After being with each other for awhile:

  • During this period, all major European imperial powers allied with American Indian groups, and armed them, and used those alliances to fight each other

  • Sometimes indigenous groups took advantage of those alliances in order to achieve their own goals.

    • Beaver Wars

      • Intermittent conflicts throughout the 17th century occurred because of conflicts in control over the profitable fur trade in the Great lakes and Ohio River Valley region. 

        • The Iroquois confederacy sought to expand into the territory of neighboring indigenous peoples – good chance of success since the Dutch had been trading them weapons for a while.

      • Iroquois Confederacy (Allied with the British) emerged victorious

        • Reshaped power dynamics in the Great Lakes region 

        • Displaced several indigenous people groups in area

          • Moved south and west (some happened to move where colonists were expanding → frontier conflicts like in Bacon’s rebellion)

      • French vs Dutch & British

    • War of Spanish Succession (1702)

      • Conflict over who would control Spain’s kingdom & Colonial Empire

      • Spain allied with France to oppose Great Britain

        • Also relied on alliances with indigenous groups 

      • Though the relationship was fraught, alliances formed between Europeans and American Indians in which each sought to use the other for their own advantage

• Military Conflict 

  • Metacom’s War / King Philip’s War

    • New England Settlers Pushed West 

      • Wampangoag eventually retaliated 

        • Metacom was chieftain of the Wampenog but the settlers at Plymouth called him King Philip

    • Wampanoag tried coexisting with the colony at first

      • Metacom = son of Massasoit 

        • Massasoit had helped Plymouth colonists avoid starvation

    • Indigenous Groups bonded together

      • Metacom’s forces attacked English settlements all over the New England region, completely destroying a dozen Puritan towns and killing hundreds of colonists 

      • Colonists eventually killed Metacom which brought the conflict to an end

      • Temporary slowed colonial expansion 

        • Too many indigenous deaths to continue resisting settler expansion

• Cultural Accomodation 

  • Pueblo Revolt (1680)

    • Spain expanded and strengthened empire via mission system 

      • Catholic missionaries attempted to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity 

      • Pueblo continued to practice indigenous belief systems to the annoyance of the Spanish 

    • Growing resentment against encomienda system and population loss on account of disease

    • Led by a medicine man named Pope 

      • Driving out the Spanish and returning to tradition would bring peace and prosperity

        • Destroyed Catholic churches, killed priests and settlers

        • Drove them out of Pueblo land

    • Spanish returned and launched a brutal campaign against the Pueblo and killed a bunch of them → successful in reestablishing control 

      • Spanish made accommodations for Pueblo

        • Offered land grants to the Pueblo 

        • Appointed representative to uphold Pueblo rights and interests

        • Priests allowed Pueblo to practice traditional belief systems

2.6 How Slavery Shaped the British Colonies

• Uneven Distribution 

  • Slavery was present in all colonies on account of the significant demand for labor that produced colonial goods for export. Those goods brought wealth.

  • North (fewest amount of enslaved people ) → South (more amount of enslaved people)

    • North 

      • Small family farms

      • Rocky soil, colder climate

      • Imported very few slaves

    • Middle 

      • Slightly more African slaves

      • Concentrated in port cities (NY, NJ)

      •  They worked in the docs, households, and grain plantations in Hudson river valley

    • Chesapeake & North Carolina

      • Number of slaves increases rapidly

      • Warmer climate, longer growing seasons

      • Large-scale plantations

      • High-demand crops like tobacco

    • Southern & British West Indies

      • Largest concentration of slaves 

      • Sugar cultivation 

      • Black population outnumbered white population by 4:1 

      • Chattel Slavery

        • Chattel = property 

        • Enslaved now considered permanent property of slaveholder

      • Barbados Slave Code

        • Stripped all rights from black workers

        • Granted white planters complete power

          • Let to violent punishments for enslaved 

• Increased demand for Slave Labor 

  • At first indentured servants did bulk of work

    • Indenture = contract 

    • Indentured Servant: A person contracted to work to pay off debt (cost of migrating from Great Britain to the colonies)

  • Indentured Servants were both Black & White

    • Black indentured servant, John Punch, ran away along with two white indentured servants

      • White men: 4 years added to indenture 

      • John Punch: Condemned to lifelong slavery 

      • Signaled shift toward race-based slavery in the colonies

    • In the second half of the 17th century indentured servitude began to break down in Virginia since the land available to freed indentured servants was becoming far more scarce

• Bacon’s Rebellion 

  • William Berekely revoked the voting rights of indentured servitudes (now, you needed land to be able to vote)

    • Both free white workers and enslaved black workers participated — felt Governor Berkely favored Virginia elite 

    • Wanted help on frontier to attack indigenous people for land

    • Attacked the governor William Berkeley who fled from his attackers. Berkeley ensured support from the British navy and eventually put down the rebellion which ended in the death of Bacon.

  • Led to changes in labor systems !!! Prior to rebellion, most work in the Chesapeake region was carried out by indentured servants. Now, new Race-Based Laws divided the rebels

    • Black people were now considered to be less than white people of any level of wealth (couldn’t rebel together anymore)

    • Planters began to demand more enslaved Africans (dominant labor system in the South)

• Slave Resistance

  • Covert Resistance (secretive, small acts)

    • Maintained family structures

      • under constant threat of separation if planter decided to sell a member of the family

    • Worked slower/broke tools 

      • Slowered progress

    • Maintained cultural elements

      • Gender roles, religious beliefs, traditional language, etc.

      • Musical instruments like drums and banjo 

      • Created syncretic cultures by blending African, European, and Indigenous traditions (gumbo, jambalaya, mardi gras)

  • Overt Resistance

    • New York Slave Rebellion of 1741

      • Enslaved people intentionally burned down a building, when white people came to check on it, the rebels killed 9 of them

      • Rebels were quickly captured, tortured, and publicly burned in the town square

      • Signal that enslaved workers were fed up with the ravages of slavery

    • Jamaica

      • Resistance led by fugitive slaves living in maroon communities 

      • Waged war against British planters for 10+ years

      • British finally signed treaty recognizing their freedom in 1740

    • Stono Rebellion 

      • Occurred in South Carolina in 1739

      • Gathered by the Stono River and launched an attack throughout the region 

      • Rebels marched and killed any white people they encountered, burned their houses and barns as well.

      • South Carolina militia eventually defeated rebels

    • The chief effect of slave rebellions was to drive fear deep into the hearts of the southern planters that their own enslaved people would revolt

      • South Carolina’s slave codes were made even more severe, effort to suppress any future rebellions

2.7 Society and Culture in the British Colonies

• American Diversity

  • The thirteen British colonies in America contained arguably the most diverse population in the world

    • German 

      • 6% of population

      • Many escaped religious persecution & economic oppression (pennsylvania)

    • Schots-Irish

      • 7% of population 

      • Many settled on Appalachian frontier

        • Scottish were forced into Ireland by Great Britain

      • Presbyterian Christianity 

    • Other European Immigrants

      • 5% of the population 

    • Africans 

      • 20% of the population

      • Mainly concentrated in South 

        • Forced Migration 

      • Free blacks (weren’t enslaved, but didn’t have equal rights)

        • 5% of black population 

        • Mostly concentrated in upper South or urban areas 

  • The diversity in many ways became an important part of American identity in the colonies; however , American identity was group-based, and answer changes depending on who you were talking to.

    • Colonists thought of themselves not as Americans but as British subjects

• Becoming more British-Like (Anglicization) 

  • New England/Middle Colonies’ Merchant Class

    • Resembled English Nobility in customs and social dominance 

  • Southern Elite Planters

    • Wealthy / owned many slaved 

    • Allowed them to dominate local politics 

  • Consumer Revolution 

    • Increasing wealth led to demand for British goods, especially among wealthier urban families 

  • Social Status Bias changed

    • Birth and family history < financial success

    • As land grew scarce, society’s lowest became landless and poor

  • Colonies shared government structure

    • Included a governor and bicameral legislature 

    • Same as England

• American Unity 

  • Enlightenment 

    • European intellectual movement 

    • Applied scientific & philosophical reasoning to society & politics 

      • Emphasized rational thought & rejected authority structures (religious authority)

    • Thanks to a robust transatlantic print culture, the ideas of the Enlightenment crossed the Atlantic and played a role in uniting the colonists as a truly unique people

      • John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau worte about natural rights and social contract, played a significant role in the creation of an American political philosophy 

  • Great Awakening

    • 1730s -1740s | Context: religious on the decline

      • Halfway Covenant relaxed criteria for church membership—allowed them to get baptized (before puritans only admitted people into the church who could give a credible testimony of their conversion)

      • After Glorious Revolution, colonies forced to accept religious tolerance

    • Began in Massachusetts by minister Johnathan Edwards (Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God)

      • Congregants responded to sermons with highly emotional outbursts 

        • Religious revival: emotional response to word of god resulting in many conversions

        • Became part of American religious identity 

    • British minister George Whitefield followed suit 

      • Churches emphasized personal and emotional religious experiences

      • New Light Clergy: emotionalism & personal experience constituted the proper form of Christan experience

      • Old Light: skeptical of theatrics, moved toward reason

    • The Great Awakening swept rapidly through the colonies, and it became the first mass movement in the American colonies (formed identity of humans, helped them understand themselves)

  •  Resulted from Anglicization of Colonies

    • Movements made colonists proud to be British subjects 

      • At the same time, sowed seeds that would eventually grow into challenging British authority.

    • Revivalism began in England under John Wesley (fostered a greater emphasis on individualism and challenged traditional authority)

    • In short: 

      • Enlightenment: dont trample our rights

      • Great Awakening: personal experience > traditional authority 

• Growing Mistrust 

  • American colonists felt they were not merely the colonial slaves of the British empire, but much more unique and independent 

  • Territorial Settlements in Ohio River Valley

    • Colonial population increased 

      • Natural reproduction 

      • Immigration

    • Land became scarce 

    • Colonists' desire to migrate west created tensions. British wanted to avoid conflict with two groups:

      • Indigenous peoples (reignite hostilities)

      • French 

      • So, British shut down the idea for Westward expansion

  • Colonial Self-Rule

    • During periods of salutory neglect, colonists developed self-rule

      • Started to think of themselves as independent

    • Resentment towards the policy of Impressment for the British Navy

      • ​​Impressment: forced colonial men to serve in the war effort on British ships 

      • King George’s War

        • Colonists’ resentment grew into three-day riot in Boston

        • These riots indicated that colonists had developed a sense of their natural rights and refused to allow an imperial power to infringe on those rights

      • Zenger Trial (1735)

        • John Peter Zenger wrote a newspaper to inform the public about British infringements on colonial rights –existing of this paper was due to the spread of the Enlightenment and the growth of print culture that helped to spread these ideas

        • Critizied dismissal of American judge by British-appointed governor 

        • Author brought to court on charges of sedition and libel (undermined government authority, doenst matter if its true or false)

        • Even though Zenger broke law, colonial jury, acquitted him

  • Trade

    • Colonies had to import increasing amounts of British goods

    • British demand for American goods plateaued 

    • Navigation acts resirtced colonial trade –forbidden to find other trading partners 

      • Colonists found ways to smuggle goods to other buyers which strengthened the economy.