PYSCH BOE

Hindsight Bias

knew it all along effect

Operational Definition

a clear measurable description of a variable or concept within a study

Case Study

in-depth detailed examination of a single subject. It involves gathering data from multiple sources

Naturalistic Observation

examination of a single subject within its real-world context.

Survey

research method used to collect data from a group of people gather info on opinions

Experiment

research method used to test hypotheses by manipulating an independent variable to observe their effect on a dependent variable.

Control Group

group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention being tested.

Experimental Group

group being experiemented on

Population

the entire group of individuals

Random Sample

subset of individuals selected from a larger population in a way that each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Representative Sample

subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population from which it is drawn.

Convenience Sample

non-probability sampling method where participants are selected based on their availability to participate

Random Assignment

process used in experimental research to allocate participants to different groups randomly

Double-Blind Procedure

Used to remove bias, neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants are in the experiment and control group

Placebo

treatment that has no therapeutic effect

Independent Variable

variable in an experiment that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependent variable

Dependent Variable

variable affected by indy variable

Statistical Significance

results of a study that are unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, indicating a relationship . less than 0.05% is significant

Effect Size

magnitude of relationship strength between two variables

Standard Deviation

measure that shows the amount of variation in a set of values. A low standard deviation means that the data points tend to be close to the mean, high indicates more spread out

Quanatative Measures

numbers

Qualatative Measures

descriptions

Meta-analysis

combines the results of multiple studies to draw conclusions

just-world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe that the world is fair, individuals get what they deserve

altruism

selfless concern for the well-being of others, acts of kindness , no expectation of personal gain

bystander effect

individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present

social loafing

individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when they work alone

reciprocity norm

social principle suggesting that people feel obligated to return favors or acts of kindness.

conflict

disagreement

social trap

situation in which individuals or groups, acting in their own self interest, ultimately lead to negative impacts for the rest of their group

ingroup vs. outgroup phenonmenon

distinction between groups of people based on shared characteristics, bias towards ingroup

out-group homogeneity bias

Perceiving members of an outgroup as being more similar to one another than they actually are, while seeing members of ingroup as more diverse

fundamental attribution error

tendency for people to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining the behavior of others

diffusion of responsibility

individuals in a group feel less personal responsibility to act in a situation

deindividuation

a loss of self-awareness in group situations.

social responsibility norm

social standard that suggests individuals must help those who cannot help themselves

stanford prison experiment

effects of perceived power and authority in a simulated prison environment. how individuals would conform to the role of guards and prisoners in a mock prison setting.

groupthink

phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony results bad descision-making

social facilitation

psychological phenomenon where an individual's performance on a task is improved in the presence of others.

Asch experiment

degree to which individuals would conform to group pressure when answering questions about line lengths. highlighted power of social influence

Milgram Study

investigate how far individuals would go in obeying an authority figure, particulary in the context of of delivering what they believe were painful electric shocks

foot-in-the-door technique

making a small request first, which is more likely to be accepted, followed by a larger request. Persuasion technique

obedience

form of social influence where an individual follows direct orders or commands from an authority figure.

conformity

individuals change their beliefs to align with those of a group

neurons

Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses, serving as the basic building blocks of the nervous system.

axon

slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical to other neurons

soma

The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus responsible for maintaining the cell's health

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that recieve signals from other neurons.

Action Potential

A rapid change in electrical charge that travels along the axon, allowing communication between neurons.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer that insulates axons, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals.

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron after they have transmitted a signal.

Endocrine System

A network of glands that produce hormones, regulating various bodily functions.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are involved in the body’s reward system.

Pituitary Gland

Often called the "master gland," it controls other endocrine glands and regulates growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.

Glutamate

neurotransmitter that plays a key role in plasticity and learning.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and reward pathways in the brain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and also plays a role in attention and memory.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the body’s "fight or flight" response, affecting alertness and arousal.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid):

neurotransmitter that helps to regulate neuronal excitability and maintain balance

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness, influencing mood, sleep, and appetite.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for thought and perception

Corpus Collasum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them.

Thalamus

A relay station in the brain that processes and transmits sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A region of the brain that regulates vital bodily functions, including temperature, hunger, thirst, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Reticular Formation

A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in regulating arousal and consciousness.

Medulla

The lower part of the brainstem that controls functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Cerebellum

A region of the brain that coordinates movement and is involved in motor learning.

Hippocampus

A critical area for memory formation and spatial navigation.

Amygdala

Part of brain involved in emotional processing, particularly fear and pleasure.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord, it processes information and coordinates responses.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves outside the CNS that connects it to the rest of the body, including sensory and motor functions.

Sensation

process of detecting and processing physical stimuli through sensory organs

Perception

process by which the brain organizes, interprets, and makes sense of information.

Bottom-up Processing

perception that starts with sensory input and works its way up to higher-level cognitive processes

Top-down Processing

involves using existing knowledge to interpret sensory information

Absolute Threshold

minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time

Just Noticeable Difference (JND) / Difference Threshold

refers to the smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that a person can detect

Signal Detection Theory

detecting a signal depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and psychological factors like expectations and experiences

Cocktail Party Effect

ability of an individual to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like at a party, while filtering out other background noise

Selective Attention

cognitive process of focusing on one particular stimulus while ignoring others

Circadian Rhythm

the sleep-wake cycle, which is regulated by internal biological clocks and external factors like light and darkness.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder where a person experiences temporary interruptions in breathing during sleep

Night Terrors

Episodes of intense fear or panic during sleep

Insomnia

A condition characterized by difficulty sleeping, resulting in daytime fatigue

Narcolepsy

A neurological disorder marked by excessive daytime sleepiness

Somnambulism

The act of sleepwalking

Delta Waves

Slow brain waves with high amplitude that occur during deep sleep, associated with restorative functions like healing and growth

Sleep Spindles

Sudden, brief bursts of rapid brain activity, believed to play a role in memory consolidation and sleep protection

Alpha Waves

Brain waves that occur when a person is awake but relaxed, typically with their eyes closed

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movement

Information Processing Theory

A theory suggesting that sleep helps process and organize memories

Physiological Functioning Theory

The theory that sleep helps maintain and repair the body and brain by supporting growth and clearing metabolic waste products

Activation-Synthesis Theory

theory of dreaming that proposes dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where, after a period of REM sleep deprivation, a person experiences an increase in REM sleep duration and intensity

Shaping

Reinforcing steps toward a desired behavior.

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

Rewarding behavior only sometimes, making it resistant to extinction.

Continuous Reinforcement

Rewarding behavior every time it occurs

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a reward to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.

Operant Conditioning

Learning via consequences of behavior.