The fundamental substances that make up all matter, consisting of atoms of the same atomic number.
Elements
New cards
2
Molecules made up of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen used to build carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Biological molecules
New cards
3
Elements required by an organism in small quantities, including iron, iodine, and copper.
Trace elements
New cards
4
Compounds made up of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen used to store energy in organisms.
Storage compounds
New cards
5
Basic unit of life, made up of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
Cells
New cards
6
Substances made up of one type of atom, including oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and others.
Elements
New cards
7
The unit of life and building blocks of the physical world.
Atoms
New cards
8
Positively charged (+) particles.
Protons
New cards
9
Uncharged particles.
Neutrons
New cards
10
Negatively charged (–) particles.
Electrons
New cards
11
Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Isotopes
New cards
12
A substance consisting of two or more elements that are chemically bonded together.
Compounds
New cards
13
The force that holds two atoms together in a molecule.
Chemical bonds
New cards
14
Charged forms of atoms that are formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
Ions
New cards
15
A chemical bond formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other.
Ionic bond
New cards
16
A chemical bond formed when electrons are shared between atoms.
Covalent bond
New cards
17
A covalent bond where electrons are shared equally between the atoms.
Non-polar covalent bond
New cards
18
A covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally between the atoms.
Polar covalent bond
New cards
19
A solution that contains a lot of hydrogen ions (H+).
Acidic Solution
New cards
20
A solution that contains a lot of hydroxide ions (OH–).
Basic Solution
New cards
21
A scale used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numbered from 1 to 14, with 7 considered neutral pH.
pH Scale
New cards
22
The concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, which indicates whether it is acidic, basic, or neutral.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration
New cards
23
The formula used to calculate the pH of a solution, which is pH = –log [H+].
pH Formula
New cards
24
A scale in which each unit represents a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration on the pH scale.
Logarithmic Scale
New cards
25
Molecules with carbon atoms
Organic molecules
New cards
26
Molecules that do not contain carbon atoms
Inorganic compounds
New cards
27
A versatile atom that can bind with other carbons, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen
Carbon
New cards
28
Chains of building blocks in macromolecules
Polymers
New cards
29
Individual building blocks of a polymer
Monomers
New cards
30
A reaction that forms polymers by losing a water molecule
Dehydration synthesis
New cards
31
A reaction that breaks down polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule
Hydrolysis
New cards
32
Four classes of organic compounds central to life on Earth
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
New cards
33
Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates
New cards
34
Simple sugars that are an energy source for cells and include glucose and fructose with a chemical formula of C6H12O6.
Monosaccharides
New cards
35
Sugars formed by joining two monosaccharides with a glycosidic linkage, such as maltose, and can be broken down into two monosaccharides by adding water.
Disaccharides
New cards
36
Complex carbohydrates made up of many repeated units of monosaccharides, such as starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
Polysaccharides
New cards
37
A polysaccharide that stores sugar in plants.
Starch
New cards
38
A polysaccharide made up of β-glucose and is a major part of the cell walls in plants, lending structural support.
Cellulose
New cards
39
A polysaccharide that stores sugar in animals.
Glycogen
New cards
40
A polymer of β-glucose molecules that serves as a structural molecule in the walls of fungus and in the exoskeletons of arthropods.
Chitin
New cards
41
Organic compounds formed by joining a group of amino acids together in a "string" through peptide bonds. Once they twist and fold on themselves, they form a 3D structure called a protein.
Polypeptides
New cards
42
Organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They function as structural components of cell membranes, sources of insulation, signalling molecules, and a means of energy storage.
Lipids
New cards
43
Lipids with two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and one hydrophilic phosphate head. They have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties, making them amphipathic molecules.
Phospholipids
New cards
44
A four-ringed molecule found in membranes that generally increases membrane fluidity, except at very high temperatures. It is also important for making certain types of hormones and for making vitamin D.
Cholesterol
New cards
45
Molecules made up of simple units called nucleotides that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. DNA contains the hereditary "blueprints" of all life, while RNA is essential for protein synthesis.
Nucleic Acids
New cards
46
The concept that as cells or organisms increase in size, their surface area-to-volume ratio decreases, leading to less efficient exchange of materials. Small organisms lose heat at much higher rates than larger organisms due to their efficient exchange of heat.
Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio
New cards
47
Cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They are typically smaller and simpler in structure than eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cells
New cards
48
Cells that contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They are typically larger and more complex in structure than prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic Cells
New cards
49
A type of cell that is smaller and simpler than a eukaryotic cell, with no membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria and archaea are examples of prokaryotes.
Prokaryotic cell
New cards
50
A type of cell that is more complex than a prokaryotic cell and has many smaller structures called organelles. Fungi, protists, plants, and animals are examples of eukaryotes.
Eukaryotic cell
New cards
51
The outer envelope of the cell, made up of mostly phospholipids and proteins. It regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell and is semipermeable.
Plasma membrane
New cards
52
The largest organelle in the cell that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and is responsible for directing the cell's activities and reproduction.
Nucleus
New cards
53
Sites of protein synthesis in the cell, composed of two subunits (large and small) made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. They can be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Ribosomes
New cards
54
A continuous channel that extends into many regions of the cytoplasm and provides mechanical support and transportation. The rough ER compartmentalizes the cell, while the smooth ER makes lipids and breaks down toxic chemicals.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
New cards
55
An organelle that modifies, processes, and sorts proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the rough ER. It packages the final products in vesicles for distribution outside of the cell.
Golgi complex
New cards
56
Organelles responsible for converting energy from organic molecules into ATP, the most common energy molecule in the cell. They have an inner and outer membrane, with the inner membrane forming folds called cristae.
Mitochondria
New cards
57
Organelles that contain digestive enzymes used to break down old, worn-out org
Lysosomes
New cards
58
Movement of molecules down a concentration gradient without the use of energy.
Passive Transport
New cards
59
Movement of small, hydrophobic molecules across the cell membrane without the assistance of proteins.
Simple Diffusion
New cards
60
Movement of molecules across the cell membrane with the assistance of channel-type proteins.
Facilitated Diffusion
New cards
61
Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential.
Osmosis
New cards
62
The measure of osmotic pressure gradient between two solutions separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
Tonicity
New cards
63
Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient with the use of energy.
Active Transport
New cards
64
The process by which the cell membrane engulfs large molecules or particles to form a vacuole or vesicle.
Endocytosis
New cards
65
The one-way movement of fluids brought about by pressure.
Bulk Flow
New cards
66
The study of how cells obtain and use energy.
Bioenergetics
New cards
67
The study of energy transformation.
Thermodynamics
New cards
68
A biological catalyst that speeds up reactions by lowering the activation energy.
Enzyme
New cards
69
The ability of an enzyme to catalyze only one kind of reaction.
Enzyme Specificity
New cards
70
The temporary binding of an enzyme to one or more substrates.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
New cards
71
The change in shape of an enzyme to accommodate the shape of its substrate.
Induced-fit
New cards
72
The control of enzymatic activity by regulating the conditions that influence the shape of the enzyme.
Enzyme Regulation
New cards
73
Adenosine triphosphate, a molecule that stores and releases energy.
ATP
New cards
74
The process of breaking down sugar to make ATP.
Cellular Respiration
New cards
75
The process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy.
Photosynthesis
New cards
76
The dark reactions that use ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions to convert CO2 into carbohydrates in the stroma of the leaf.
Calvin-Benson Cycle
New cards
77
A strategy used by CAM plants to separate carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle by incorporating CO2 into organic acids at night and releasing it during the day.
Temporal Separation
New cards
78
A process used by C4 plants to fix CO2 in a different part of the leaf from the Calvin cycle, preventing photorespiration and producing a four-carbon molecule as the first product.
Carbon Fixation
New cards
79
The final stage of aerobic respiration where electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transported through a series of proteins to create a proton gradient that powers ATP synthesis.
Electron Transport Chain
New cards
80
The three-carbon molecule produced by the splitting of glucose in the first stage of glycolysis, which also results in the net production of two ATP and two NADH molecules.
Pyruvic Acid
New cards
81
The process by which cells of multi-celled organisms coordinate their activities by communicating with one another through cell-to-cell contact or cell signaling.
Cell communication
New cards
82
A type of cell signaling that affects cells throughout the organism, often done through signaling molecules called ligands that bind to receptors and trigger a response by changing the shape of the receptor protein.
Long-range signaling
New cards
83
The process by which an external signal is transmitted to the inside of a cell, usually involving three steps: a signaling molecule binding to a specific receptor, activation of a signal transduction pathway, and production of a cellular response.
Signal transduction
New cards
84
An integral membrane protein that transmits signals from the extracellular space into the cytoplasm, binding a particular molecule in a highly specific way. It is required for signaling molecules that cannot enter the cell.
Plasma membrane receptor
New cards
85
Membrane receptors that open or close an ion channel upon binding a particular ligand.
Ligand-gated ion channels
New cards
86
Membrane receptors that have an enzymatic active site on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane and are initiated by ligand binding at the extracellular surface.
Catalytic (enzyme-linked) receptors
New cards
87
Membrane receptors that bind a different version of a G-protein on the intracellular side when a ligand is bound extracellularly, causing activation of secondary messengers within the cell.
G-protein-linked receptor
New cards
88
Processes that amplify a signal in a cell.
Signal transduction cascades
New cards
89
The set of conditions under which living things can successfully survive.
Homeostasis
New cards
90
A feedback pathway that works by turning itself off using the end product of the pathway.
Negative feedback pathway
New cards
91
A feedback pathway that involves an end product playing a role and further stimulating the pathway instead of inhibiting it.
Positive feedback pathway
New cards
92
The period from the beginning of one cell division to the beginning of the next, divided into two periods: interphase and mitosis.
Cell Cycle
New cards
93
The growing phase of the cell cycle, divided into three stages: G1, S, G2. The S phase is the most important phase, where the cell replicates its genetic material.
Interphase
New cards
94
Identical strands of DNA that are duplicated during interphase and held together by a structure called the centromere.
Sister Chromatids
New cards
95
Control mechanisms that ensure proper cell division is happening in eukaryotic cells, regulated by proteins called cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
New cards
96
Mutated genes that can convert normal cells into cancerous cells, while tumour suppressor genes produce proteins that prevent the conversion of normal cells into cancer cells.
Oncogenes
New cards
97
The process of cellular division, occurring in four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Mitosis
New cards
98
Genetic material in its decondensed state, occurring during interphase once daughter cells are produced and the cell goes back to its original state.
Chromatin
New cards
99
Achieving the production of identical daughter cells and maintaining the proper number of chromosomes from generation to generation, for growth, repair, or asexual reproduction.
Purpose of Mitosis
New cards
100
The monk who discovered genetics and is known as the father of genetics.
Studied by 14 people
