Exam 2

Public Opinion

a collection of popular views about something, perhaps a person, a local or national event, or a new idea

beliefs and attitudes

Opinions are based on _______ and _________

Beliefs

closely held idea that supports one's values and expectations

Attitudes

preferences that we form based on our life experiences and values

Political Socialization

the process through which people learn their beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors about politics - shapes public opinion.

Primacy Principle

what is learned first tends to leave a strong and lasting impression that remains with a person throughout life.

child

A parent's political orientation often affects the political orientation of his or her _____

Socioeconomic Status

represents the combination of education, occupation, and income that can be used to gauge one's position in society - shape experience, identity, and, in turn, political socialization.

different

Breaking down voters by demographic groups may reveal very _________ levels of support for particular candidates or policies among the groups

further apart

Over the years, Democrats and Republicans have moved _______ _____ in their beliefs about the role of government. In 1987, Republican and Democratic answers to forty-eight values questions only differed by an average of only 10 percent, but that difference has grown to 18 percent over the last 25 years.

Political Ideology

 a package of opinions shaped by attitudes and the prioritization of beliefs.

individuals

Socialization and elites shape society's prevalent views, since most ___________ hold inconsistent and unstable opinions

knowledge

Much of this instability and inconsistency results from low levels of *political _________*

heuristics

The "saving grace" for the public due to this dilemma is the use of __________ (or cues, i.e., informational shortcuts).

political party

_________ _____ is the most prevalent heuristic

equality

People who espouse left-wing ideologies in the United States identify with beliefs on the left side of the spectrum that prioritize ________

control

People who espouse right-wing ideologies in the United States identify with beliefs on the right side of the spectrum emphasize _______

Gender Gap

the statistical difference in party identification between men and women, with men being more likely to identify with the Republican Party and women being more likely to identify with the Democratic Party.

Straw Poll

an informal poll that does not employ scientific methods like random sampling.

Scientific Polls

provide more accurate results by taking measures to reduce chance and error.

Random Sampling

a method of selecting survey participants in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected (reduces the bias created by polls that seek out respondents of similar values and backgrounds)

Representative Sampling

a subset of a population that reflects the characteristics of the entire population (same demographics)

Margin of Error

a statistic stating how far the poll results may be from the actual opinion of the total population of citizens

Honeymoon Effect

the first several months of a new presidential administration, during which the newly elected president generally faces little public criticism

Rally-around-the-flag Effect

the increased popular support given to the president in times of crisis

Residency Requirement

establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register: it is often thirty days.

Motor Voter

(1993) required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits.

Voter ID laws

laws that requires a person to show some form of identification in order to vote.

Voting-Age Population

(VAP) those who are 18 and older

Voting-Eligible Population

(VEP) a smaller group who meet state requirements for eligibility to register and vote

Registered Voters

 those who are currently registered to vote

denominator

The ___________of voter turnout could be:

Voting-age population (VAP), Voting-eligible population (VEP), or Registered Voters

Turnout

* Factors Affecting _______:
* Age
* Socioeconomic status (education, income, etc.)
* Race
* Gender
* Ease or difficulty of voting and registration (early voting, absentee balloting, photo ID laws, vote by mail)


* Voter fatigue


* Mobility

Early Voting

an accommodation that allows voting up to two weeks before Election Day

Voter Fatigue

the result when voters grow tired of voting and stay home from the polls

Political Action Committees (PACs)

organizations established by individuals or private groups to raise and spend money to influence politics and contribute to candidates' campaigns. They are regulated by the Federal Election Commission.

Super PACs

a special case - they must be truly independent, but can raise and spend an unlimited sum.

Nominations

elections within the parties

Caucus

 a local meeting of party members in which the party's nominee is selected

Primary Election

(more common) an election conducted within a political party to select its candidates for the general election

Closed Primary

party members only

Open Primary

 all voters welcome

Top-Two (Jungle) Primary

pits all candidates together

delegates

In presidential elections, nomination contests select _________ to the national convention.

National Party Conventions

party meetings held every four years to establish the party platforms and officially nominate presidential candidates to run in the general election. They are nationally televised.

* Usually these are heavily scripted events without much suspense. It did not used to be that way!

General Election

a national election held every two years as required by the Constitution

* This type of election features members of the two major parties squaring off for national office, including president (every four years) and all House seats (every two years). One-third of Senate seats are "in cycle" for the election every two years.

midterms

Congressional elections occur every two years (in both presidential years and off-years or "________")

Congressional Elections

Determine winners of all seats in the House of Representatives

1/3

In any congressional election, only about ___ of Senate seats are up for election because of the six-year terms

Plurality Voting

 a system in which the single winner of the most votes wins the election (even if the candidate does not capture a majority of the vote). Also called “**winner-take-all**”

district system

When plurality voting is combined with a ________ ______ that selects a single elected official, you tend to see a two-party competition (*Duverger's Law*)

Electoral College

The outcome of the presidential election is determined when presidential vote choices of electors who have been selected through the state popular vote participate in the _________ _______.

House plus two

The number of electors is equal to a state's membership in the _____ plus ___ (senators), with an additional three electors from D.C.

270

How many electoral college votes are needed to win the presidency?

Party affiliation

_____ ___________ is a major consideration for many (some of whom choose straight-ticket voting, which may help to reduce ballot fatigue)

Straight-Ticket Voting

the practice of voting only for candidates from the same party

Ballot Fatigue

the result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of a long ballot

Voter Considerations

* Party affiliation
* Candidate characteristics
* Issue positions
* Retrospective/prospective/pocketbook voting

Incumbents

__________ win at a much higher rate than challengers

Incumbent

the current occupant of an office

Incumbency Advantage

the advantage held by officeholders that allows them to often win reelection

* Particularly pronounced in the U.S. House elections (upwards of 90% of those running for reelection win).
* Has declined somewhat in recent years

Direct Democracy

a form of government where people participate directly in making government decisions instead of choosing representatives to do this for them

Forms of Direct Democracy

* Referendum
* Initiative (or Proposition)
* Recall

Referendum

confirm/repeal government decision

Initiative

(aka Proposition)  law or constitutional amendment that bypasses the legislature and governor

Recall

remove government official from office

Political Party

a group of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies

* Doing so requires getting members elected to office and coordinating their actions

party platform

Parties present their positions on issues in a document known as a _____ ________ that are adopted at party conventions every four years

factions

The Constitution is silent on the issue of parties. However, they emerged quickly on the basis of ________ in national government.

Jacksonian

Increasing democratic participation in the __________ era (beginning in 1828) ushered in the "spoils system" and political machines in many cities.

Spoils System

a system that rewards political loyalties or party support during elections with bureaucratic appointments after victory

Political Machine

an organization that secures votes for a party’s candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government

Third Parties

political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties

Duverger’s Law

the principal by which political systems that use the plurality rule in single-member districts tend to have two-party politics.

* This occurs, in part, because parties must broaden their political platforms to attract as many voters as possible.
* Third and minor parties with narrow interests are not able to attract the number of votes necessary to win office.

Plurality Rule

the election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share

adaptability

Another obstacle faced by third parties is the ____________ of the two major parties.

* Popular narrow interests held by a third party are usually quickly absorbed into the broad platforms of the two largest parties.

six

There have been ___ distinctive periods in U.S. history when new political parties have emerged, dominance of the federal government has shifted from one party to another, or significant changes in a party's makeup have occurred. These events typically coincide with a party realignment and/or a critical election.

Party Realignment

a shifting of party alliances within the electorate

Critical Election

an election that represents a sudden, clear, and long-term shift in voter allegiances

Advantages

*__________ of the Two-Party System*

* Simplifies the political process for voters
* Promotes stability in democratic parties
* Guarantees a clear winner

Disadvantages

*_____________of the Two-Party System*

* Slow to change
* Restricts voter choice
* Discourages coalition building
* May encourage polarization

parties

We typically think of _______ as entities that exist at three related levels:

* Party-in-the-electorate
* Party organization
* Party-in-government

Party-in-the-electorate

members of the public who identify with a party.

Party organization

the formal structure of a party, from the local precinct level through state and national organizations.

Party-in-government

party identifiers who have been elected to public office and seek to achieve their policy goals.

dropped

The number of moderates has _______ since 1973 as both parties have moved towards ideological extremes.

factions

As with political parties, the term interest group does not appear in the Constitution (although the framers wrote about "________").

Interest Group

a formal association of individuals/organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and/or the making of public policy.

Lobbyist

a person who represents an organization before government in an attempt to influence policy

Membership Organizations

an interest group that usually consists of dues-paying members who organize around a particular cause or issue (ex. the NRA)

In-House Lobbyist

an employee or executive within an organization who works as a lobbyist on behalf of the organization

Contract Lobbyist

a lobbyist who works for a contract lobbying firm that represents clients before government

Inside Lobbying

the act of contacting and taking the organization’s message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence policy

Outside Lobbying

the act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization’s message to the public, often through the use of the media and/or by issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers

Public Interest Group

an interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all

Collective Action Problem

The group's goals are best achieved if everyone participates, but the interests of each individual member are best served by free riding, or relying on the efforts of the group without contributing to its work.

Free Riders

those who attempt to benefit from a collective effort without working toward its achievement

Selective Benefits

People join interest groups to get _________ ________. These benefits come in a variety of forms, usually at the initiative of an entrepreneurial leader who identifies a compelling incentive to offer:

* Material benefits
* Solidary benefits
* Purposive benefits

Material Benefits

substantive monetary or physical benefits given to group members to help overcome collective action problems

Solidary Benefits

benefits based on the concept that people like to associate with those who are similar to them