Exam 1

Circulatory system

Consists of heart, blood vessels ,and blood

Cardiovascular System

Only heart and blood vessels

Compare and contrast the cardiovascular and circulatory system

The cardiovascular system is a component of the circulatory system, focusing solely on the heart and blood vessels, while the circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Functions of circulatory system

Transporting nutrients, gases, and waste, protection, and regulation

Most important function is transport of O2

What is the source of blood

Found in marrow cavity in bones

New blood cells in red marrow

How long can we live with low levels of WBC?

We can live weeks with low levels of white blood cells, but prolonged deficiency can lead to serious infections.

How long can we live with low RBC count

Not long, hours to days (sudden loss of O2)

How many liters of blood does the average adult have

The average adult has about 5 to 6 liters of blood in their body, accounting for approximately 7-8% of total body weight.

What are formed elements

Formed elements are the cellular components of blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, which play crucial roles in oxygen transport, immune response, and blood clotting.

How much blood can we lose before dying?

A person can typically lose about 40% of their total blood volume, or around 2 liters, before experiencing life-threatening consequences.

What are the three major categories of plasma proteins

The three major categories of plasma proteins are albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen, each serving essential functions in maintaining osmotic pressure, immune responses, and blood clotting.

How are plasma proteins formed

By the liver

What contributes most to blood viscosity

The concentration of red blood cells

What is most important for blood concentration

Sodium helps maintain normal osmolarity

Na+ is most prominent cation in blood

Hematopoiesis

Production of blood mainly formed elements

Takes place in red bone marrow

What are the two main functions of erythrocytes

Carry O2 to from lungs to cell tissues (main function)

Pick up CO2 from tissues and bring to lungs

How long do erythrocytes circulate for

Around 120 days

Erythrocytes form

Disc shaped cell wall with thick rim

Lack mitochondria

Lack nucleus and DNA

Energy source is glucose

Anaerobic fermentation

Why do erythrocytes use anaerobic fermentation over aerobic

They are designed to transport O2, if they had a mitochondria they would consume they O2

How is blood type determined

Surface glycoproteins and glycolipids

Give rise to defining blood type (A,B,AB,O)

Which cytoskeletal proteins give membrane durability and resilience (in erythrocytes)

Actin and spectrin

33% of the cytoplasm is what in erythrocytes

hemoglobin (Hb), which binds oxygen

How many molecules of Hb bind to molecular O2 in erythrocytes

Each hemoglobin molecule can bind to four molecules of O2.

What does each Hb molecule consist of

Four protein chains —> globins

Four heme groups

Adult Hb has how many alpha and beta chains

Two alpha chains and two beta chains.

Fetal Hb consists of how many alpha and gamma chains

Two alpha chains and two gamma chains.

What is the average RBC count in adults

5 million/ul of blood

What is the average WBC count in adults

5,000-10,000/ul of blood

What is the average platelets in adults

150,000-300,000/ul of blood

What does RBC and hemoglobin concentration indicate

The amount of oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and overall health of the red blood cells. Low levels may indicate anemia or other health issues.

Why are erythrocyte quantities lower in women than men?

This is primarily due to hormonal differences, such as lower testosterone levels in women, which affects erythropoiesis. Additionally, menstruation can lead to lower red blood cell counts.

How long does erythrocyte development take

3-5 days

Discuss the importance of iron

Iron is essential for the production of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Adequate iron levels are crucial for preventing anemia and ensuring efficient oxygen transport in the body.

Discuss the process of erythrocyte death and disposal in the spleen and liver

Erythrocytes have a lifespan of about 120 days, after which they are phagocytized by macrophages in the spleen and liver. The heme component is broken down to bilirubin, which is excreted in bile, while iron is recycled for new red blood cell production.

What is polycythemia

A condition characterized by an increased number of red blood cells in the bloodstream, leading to elevated blood viscosity and potential complications such as hypertension and thrombosis.

What is anemia

A lack of RBC and hemoglobin (not low iron)

3 potential consequences of anemia

tissue hypoxia and necrosis, blood osmolarity is reduced, and blood viscosity is low

What are RBC antigens called

agglutinogens

called antigen A and B

What are agglutinogens determined by

glycolipids on RBC surface

What are antigens

substances that trigger an immune response, often found on the surface of pathogens or cells.

What is your ABO blood type determined by

the presence or absence of A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells.

A blood type A person has what anitgens

A antigens

A blood type B person has what antigens

B antigens

Blood type person AB has what type of antigens

A and B antigens

Blood type O person has what type of antigens

Neither A or B antigens

What is the most common blood type

O positive blood type

What is the rarest blood type

AB negative blood type

What happens if wrong blood type is given to a patient

The patient's immune system may attack the transfused blood, leading to a potentially life-threatening transfusion reaction.

What are antibodies

Anti A and Anti B found in the blood

You do not form antibodies against your antigens

When do our antibodies appear in our blood

2-8 months after birth; which are at maximum concentration by age 10

What blood type is the universal donor and why

Type O, because it has no A or B antigens on the red blood cells, reducing the risk of transfusion reactions.

Who is the universal blood recipient and why

Type AB, because it has both A and B antigens, allowing it to receive blood from any type without risk of transfusion reactions.

What antibodies does a type A blood type have

Anti-B antibodies

What antibodies does a type B blood type have

Anti-A antibodies

What antibodies does a type AB blood type have

No antibodies

What antibodies does a type O blood type have

Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies

Which antigen is responsible for the Rh±

D antigen

How can hemolytic disease form in a newborn

Hemolytic disease in a newborn can occur when an Rh-negative mother produces antibodies against the Rh-positive blood cells of her Rh-positive fetus, leading to the destruction of the fetal red blood cells.

What is the least abundant formed element

leukocytes (WBC)

What do leukocytes do

Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are crucial components of the immune system that help defend the body against infections and foreign substances.

What are the granulocytes

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

What are the agranulocytes

Lymphocytes and monocytes

What is the percentage of neutrophils in the WBC

60-70%

What is the percentage of eosinophils in WBC

2-4%

What is the percentage of basophils in WBC

<1%

What is the percentage of lymphocytes in WBC

25-33%

What is the percentage of monocytes in WBC

3-8%

What is the main purpose of neutrophils

Antibacterial (bacterial infection response)

What is the main purpose of eosinophils

Involved in combating parasitic infections and allergic reactions.

What is the main purpose of basophils

Involved in inflammatory responses and release histamine.

What is the main purpose of lymphocytes

Involved in adaptive immune response, including the production of antibodies and targeting infected cells.

What is the main purpose of monocytes

Involved in phagocytosis and differentiating into macrophages and dendritic cells to help initiate immune responses.

Viral infections and inflammation

What stores and releases granulocytes and monocytes

Red bone marrow

Circulating WBC do not stay in blood stream, how long are they present for

Granulocytes: leave in 8 hours and live for 5 days

Monocytes: leave in 20 hours, transform into macrophages, and live for several years

What is hemostasis

The process that prevents and stops bleeding by forming a blood clot.

What are three hemostatic mechanisms

Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation

What are functions of platelets

Platelets are involved in hemostasis, helping to form clots, and they release growth factors that aid in tissue repair.

Also secrete chemical substances when activated

What is thrombopoiesis

The process of platelet production in the bone marrow from megakaryocytes.

How long do platelets circulate freely for

5-6 days

Describe the process of hemostasis

1.) Vascular spasm: vaso constriction, platelets are activated

2.) Platelet plug forms due to activation of platelets

3.) Coagulation: blood clot formation, produce fibrin, best results for hemostasis

Compare and contrast the extrinsic pathway to intrinsic pathway during coagulation

The extrinsic pathway is activated by external trauma leading to blood vessel injury, whereas the intrinsic pathway is triggered by damage to the blood vessel wall. The extrinsic pathway is faster and involves tissue factor, while the intrinsic pathway is slower and involves several clotting factors.

Calcium is required for either pathway

What is the role of thrombin

Converts fibrinogen into fibrin monomers

What are natural anticoagulants

Heparin and antithrombin

What is required for formation of clotting factors

Vitamin K

What is the pulmonary circuit

The part of the circulatory system that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. It is the right side of the heart and includes the pulmonary arteries and veins.

The right ventricle/atrium feed the lungs

What is the systemic circuit

The part of the circulatory system that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. It involves the left side of the heart, including the aorta and systemic veins.

Right side of the heart

O2 poor and CO2 rich blood is pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.

Left side of heart

O2 rich and CO2 poor blood is pumped to the rest of the body to supply organs and tissues.

What are veins

Blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, except for pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs.

Anything attached to the atria=a vein

Discuss the flow of blood through the pulmonary and systemic circuit of the heart

Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs via the pulmonary circuit for oxygenation, then returns to the left side of the heart, where it is pumped through the systemic circuit to supply the body with oxygen-rich blood. The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the systemic circuit distributes oxygenated blood throughout the body.

Why is the left ventricle bigger than the right ventricle

The left ventricle is larger than the right ventricle because it needs to generate more force to pump oxygenated blood throughout the entire body, whereas the right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs.

The right ventricle also can not be as big as the left ventricle because if it was and contracted with that much force, our lungs would collapse

What is the pericardium

The pericardium is a double-walled sac that encloses the heart, providing protection and anchoring it to surrounding structures. It also contains pericardial fluid, which reduces friction during heartbeats.

What are the three layers of the heart wall

Epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium

What are the four chambers of the heart

The four chambers of the heart are the right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle, each playing a crucial role in the circulation of blood.

What is the atrioventricular sulcus

A groove that separates the atria from the ventricles of the heart, containing coronary vessels.

What is the inter ventricular sulcus

A groove on the surface of the heart that separates the left and right ventricles, containing blood vessels that supply the ventricles.

What is the AV vales and what do they do

The AV valves, or atrioventricular valves, are located between the atria and ventricles of the heart. They prevent backflow of blood into the atria during ventricular contraction.

How many cusps does the right AV valve have

The right AV valve, also known as the tricuspid valve, has three cusps.

How many cusps does the left AV valve have

The left AV valve, also known as the mitral valve, has two cusps.

What are semilunar valves and what is their purpose

The semilunar valves are located between the ventricles and the major arteries (aorta and pulmonary artery). They prevent backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles after contraction.