Key U.S. Constitutional and Political History Concepts

3/5th Clause

A compromise written into the Constitution (1787) to settle disputes between Northern and Southern states over representation and taxation. Each enslaved person would be counted as three-fifths of a person when determining state populations for seats in the House of Representatives and Electoral College votes. This gave the South greater political power without granting rights to enslaved people.

Albany Plan of Union

Proposed in 1754 by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress during the French and Indian War. It called for a unified colonial government to manage defense, Native relations, and trade. The colonies rejected it because they feared losing autonomy, and Britain rejected it because they feared colonial unity.

Articles of Confederation

Ratified in 1781, the first U.S. constitution created a loose confederation of sovereign states with a weak national government. Congress could declare war, sign treaties, and manage western lands, but it had no power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.

Connecticut Compromise (Great Compromise)

Proposed by Roger Sherman in 1787, it blended the Virginia Plan (representation by population) and New Jersey Plan (equal representation). The compromise created a bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives (population-based) and the Senate (equal state representation).

Constitutional Convention

A 1787 meeting in Philadelphia called to revise the Articles of Confederation but ended up producing a new Constitution. Delegates created a stronger central government with three branches, checks and balances, and federalism.

Constitutional Religious Tests

Article VI bans any religious test as a requirement for holding federal office. This was groundbreaking in the 18th century, ensuring separation of church and state and protecting religious freedom.

Electoral College

A compromise system of electing the president created at the Constitutional Convention. Citizens vote in each state, and electors (equal to a state's number of Senators + Representatives) formally cast votes.

Hamilton Plan

At the Convention, Alexander Hamilton proposed a strong national government with a president and senators serving for life, modeled after the British system. While extreme and rejected, it illustrates how some leaders sought maximum stability and centralized power.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed by William Paterson in 1787, it called for a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state, strengthening the Articles instead of replacing them. Favored by small states, it was rejected but influenced the Connecticut Compromise.

Pinckney's Plan

Submitted by Charles Pinckney at the Convention. It proposed a stronger central government with a bicameral legislature, separation of powers, and executive authority. Though overshadowed by the Virginia Plan, elements like checks and balances shaped the final Constitution.

Shays' Rebellion

A 1786-87 uprising by debt-ridden farmers in Massachusetts, led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays. They resisted foreclosures and high taxes by shutting down courts. The weak Articles government couldn't suppress it effectively. It convinced many elites (like Washington and Madison) that a stronger federal government was necessary, paving the way for the Constitution.

State Constitutions after Revolutionary War

They reflected Revolutionary ideals: legislatures were dominant, governors were weak, and many included bills of rights. However, too much legislative power led to instability and abuses. These experiments influenced the balance of power in the U.S. Constitution.

Virginia Plan

Drafted by James Madison. Proposed a bicameral legislature with both houses based on population, an executive, and a judiciary. It strengthened national government and diminished state sovereignty. Favored by large states, it framed debates at the Convention.

Advice and Consent power

Article II gives the Senate power to approve presidential appointments (judges, ambassadors, cabinet officials) and treaties (by 2/3 vote). This check ensures shared authority between the executive and legislative branches.

Constitutional powers of the president

Include commander in chief of the armed forces, power to veto legislation, make treaties (with Senate approval), appoint officials and judges, grant pardons, convene Congress, and 'take care' that laws are faithfully executed. Over time, these powers expanded through practice and interpretation.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Enacted in 1798 under John Adams during tensions with France. Alien Acts lengthened the time for immigrants to become citizens and allowed deportations. Sedition Act criminalized criticizing the government. Federalists defended them as security measures; Democratic-Republicans denounced them as unconstitutional violations of free speech. They fueled backlash against the Federalists.

Appointment Power

The president can nominate judges, ambassadors, and executive officials. These must be confirmed by the Senate. It allows presidents to shape the judiciary and bureaucracy for decades.

Checks on the executive office

Congress can impeach and remove presidents, override vetoes, deny funding, and reject appointments or treaties. Courts can strike down executive actions. These limits embody the system of checks and balances.

Commander in Chief

The president commands the U.S. military. While Congress declares war and funds the military, presidents have broadly used this role to direct conflicts without formal declarations of war (e.g., Korea, Vietnam).

Convene and Adjourn Congress

The president can call special sessions of Congress in emergencies and adjourn them if the House and Senate cannot agree on ending a session. Rarely used, but symbolizes executive authority.

Democratic-Republicans

Democratic-Republicans (led by Jefferson and Madison) grew from Antifederalist opposition to the Constitution.

States' Rights

The belief that states should have the authority to govern themselves and make their own laws.

Agrarian Values

The belief in the importance of agriculture and rural society.

Strict Construction of the Constitution

The interpretation of the Constitution in a way that limits the powers of the federal government to those explicitly stated.

Enumerated Powers of the Executive Branch

Powers listed in Article II: veto laws, command armed forces, grant pardons, make treaties, appoint officials, convene Congress, and execute laws.

Federalist 51

An essay written by Madison arguing that separation of powers and checks and balances are essential to controlling government.

Federalists

Supporters of ratification and a strong national government to ensure stability and unity.

Antifederalists

Opponents of the Constitution who feared centralized tyranny and demanded a Bill of Rights.

First Election of Washington

In 1789, George Washington was unanimously elected the first U.S. president, setting precedents for future presidencies.

Impeachment Power

The power of Congress to remove a president or officials for 'high crimes and misdemeanors.'

Jay's Treaty

A 1794 treaty with Britain resolving trade and border disputes, which angered France and Jeffersonians.

Presidential Power to Make Treaties

The president negotiates treaties, which require 2/3 Senate approval.

Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

Washington's declaration of U.S. neutrality in the war between Britain and France.

Pardon Power

The president's ability to forgive federal crimes, except in impeachment cases.

Precedents set by Washington

Traditions established by Washington, including two terms, cabinet creation, and neutrality in foreign affairs.

Qualifications for President

Must be at least 35 years old, a natural-born citizen, and a U.S. resident for 14 years.

Reynolds Affair

A scandal involving Hamilton's admission of an extramarital affair to refute corruption charges.

Take Care Clause

The clause stating the president must ensure that laws are faithfully executed.

Vesting Clause

The clause in Article II that vests 'the executive power' in the president.

Veto

The president's power to reject bills passed by Congress, which can be overridden by a 2/3 vote.

Role of the Vice President

Constitutionally limited: presides over the Senate, casts tie-breaking votes, and succeeds the president. Role has expanded in modern times as a key advisor.

Washington and Advice & Consent

Washington respected Senate's constitutional role in appointments and treaties but established executive independence by controlling negotiations before seeking approval.

Washington and symbols

Washington became a symbol of unity and republican virtue. He rejected monarchic trappings, voluntarily stepped down after two terms, and became known as the 'indispensable man.'

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 protest by Pennsylvania farmers against a federal whiskey tax. Washington personally led troops to suppress it, showing the federal government's authority to enforce laws.

XYZ Affair

In 1797, French officials demanded bribes from American diplomats before negotiations. Outrage in the U.S. led to the Quasi-War with France and anti-French sentiment at home.

12th Amendment

Ratified 1804 after the election of 1800 exposed flaws in the Electoral College. Required separate ballots for president and vice president to prevent ties and confusion.

Aaron Burr in the Election of 1800

Jefferson's running mate. He tied Jefferson in electoral votes, throwing the election to the House of Representatives. The controversy exposed weaknesses in the system and tarnished Burr's career.

Barbary War

Early 1800s conflict with North African states (Tripoli, Algiers) over piracy and tribute payments. Jefferson refused to pay bribes and sent the Navy, demonstrating U.S. willingness to defend commerce abroad.

Battle of Bladensburg

A disastrous 1814 defeat during the War of 1812 that allowed British forces to capture and burn Washington, D.C. Symbolized U.S. military weaknesses but stiffened resistance.

Election of 1800

Jefferson defeated Adams in a bitter campaign. Called the 'Revolution of 1800' because it was the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history.

Embargo Act

Passed in 1807 by Jefferson, banning all U.S. exports to pressure Britain and France to respect neutrality. It backfired, devastating U.S. trade and economy, and was highly unpopular.

Era of Good Feelings

Period (1815-1825) under President Monroe marked by one-party rule, nationalism, and relative political unity after the War of 1812. Beneath the surface, tensions over slavery and economics grew.

Jefferson's events and views on government

Major events: Louisiana Purchase, Embargo Act, reduction of military spending. He envisioned a limited federal government, agrarian democracy, and strict interpretation of the Constitution.

James Monroe

Fifth president (1817-1825). Known for the Monroe Doctrine opposing European colonization, presiding over the 'Era of Good Feelings,' and overseeing Missouri Compromise.

Jefferson's view of government and presidency

He believed in limited government, individual liberty, state power, and opposition to concentrated financial power like the national bank. Saw the president as a 'chief administrator,' not monarch-like.

John Marshall

Chief Justice (1801-1835). Strengthened federal authority and the judiciary's power through landmark cases like Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden.

John Quincy Adams

Sixth president (1825-1829). Advocated for internal improvements, education, and a strong national role. His presidency was overshadowed by accusations of a 'corrupt bargain' in the 1824 election.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Commissioned by Jefferson after the Louisiana Purchase (1804-06).

Louisiana Purchase

1803 purchase from France that doubled U.S. territory. It provided land for expansion and secured control of the Mississippi River. Critics argued it was unconstitutional since the Constitution didn't explicitly allow land purchases.

Macon's Bill No. 2

1810 law reopening trade with Britain and France, promising to cut trade with whichever nation failed to respect U.S. neutrality. Napoleon manipulated it, worsening tensions with Britain and leading to the War of 1812.

Marbury v. Madison

Landmark 1803 Supreme Court case. Established judicial review, giving courts the power to declare laws unconstitutional. Strengthened the judiciary and checked the other branches.

Missouri Compromise

1820 compromise admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while banning slavery north of 36°30′ in the Louisiana Territory. It temporarily eased sectional tensions but foreshadowed future conflict.

Monroe Doctrine

1823 policy declaring the Western Hemisphere closed to new European colonization. In exchange, the U.S. would stay out of European wars. Though initially weak, it became a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy.

Revolution of 1800

The election of Jefferson over Adams. Marked the first peaceful transfer of power between rival parties. Cemented faith in the durability of the constitutional system.

War of 1812

Fought against Britain over trade restrictions, impressment of sailors, and frontier conflicts. U.S. failed to conquer Canada but defended New Orleans and saw a surge of nationalism. It ended in stalemate with the Treaty of Ghent.

Andrew Jackson

Seventh president (1829-1837). A populist leader who expanded presidential power, opposed the Bank of the U.S., enforced Indian Removal, and embodied the "common man." His presidency reshaped American politics.

Battle of New Orleans

1815 victory led by Jackson against the British, fought after the War of 1812 had officially ended. Boosted American pride and made Jackson a national hero.

Compromise of 1850

Compromise measures admitting California as free, allowing popular sovereignty in other territories, abolishing the slave trade in D.C., and strengthening the Fugitive Slave Act. Temporarily settled tensions but inflamed sectionalism.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

1857 Supreme Court decision declaring African Americans not citizens and Congress lacking authority to ban slavery in territories. It invalidated the Missouri Compromise and outraged abolitionists, pushing the nation closer to war.

Elections of 1824 and 1828

1824: No candidate won a majority; the House chose Adams after Clay's support ("Corrupt Bargain"). 1828: Jackson won decisively, representing a populist shift and the rise of Jacksonian Democracy.

Fugitive Slave Act

Federal laws (1793, 1850) requiring escaped enslaved people to be returned to owners, even from free states. The 1850 version denied accused fugitives jury trials, enraging Northern abolitionists.

Hatch Act

1939 law (much later) that restricted federal employees from engaging in partisan political activity to maintain government neutrality. Not part of the early republic but important in executive-legislative balance.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

Signed by Jackson, it authorized forced relocation of Native tribes east of the Mississippi to lands in present-day Oklahoma. Led to the Trail of Tears and immense suffering.

Jackson and the Bank

Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the U.S., seeing it as undemocratic and favoring elites. He vetoed its recharter and withdrew federal funds, distributing them to "pet banks." His actions led to financial instability and the Panic of 1837.

Jackson and rise of party convention

Jackson's Democrats pioneered national nominating conventions to replace congressional caucuses. This expanded participation in presidential candidate selection.

Jackson and vetoes

He used veto power more than all predecessors combined, not just for constitutionality but for policy disagreements. This greatly strengthened the presidency.

James Buchanan

Fifteenth president (1857-61). His inaction on slavery and secession crises left the Union weak on the eve of the Civil War. Widely considered one of the least effective presidents.

James K. Polk & use of executive branch

Eleventh president (1845-49). A strong executive, he expanded U.S. territory through the Mexican-American War, annexed Texas, settled Oregon, and achieved Manifest Destiny. He expanded presidential war powers and authority.

John C. Calhoun

South Carolina politician, vice president, and leading pro-slavery theorist. Advocated nullification (states could ignore federal laws) and defended slavery as a 'positive good.' Central figure in sectional conflict.

John Tyler & succession

Became the 10th president (1841) after Harrison's death. First to succeed under the 'accidental president' precedent. Asserted full presidential powers despite critics calling him 'acting president.'

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Sponsored by Stephen Douglas. Allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide slavery by popular sovereignty. It repealed the Missouri Compromise, led to violent conflict ('Bleeding Kansas'), and accelerated sectional tensions.

Nullification Crisis

South Carolina, led by Calhoun, declared federal tariffs unconstitutional and nullified them. Jackson opposed nullification and threatened military force. A compromise tariff defused the crisis, but it highlighted sectional divisions.

Ordinance of Nullification

The 1832 South Carolina law declaring tariffs null and void. Directly challenged federal authority and sparked the Nullification Crisis.

Panic of 1837

Economic depression triggered by Jackson's financial policies (Bank War, Specie Circular), land speculation, and global downturn. Banks collapsed, unemployment rose, and Van Buren's presidency was crippled.

Peggy Eaton Scandal/Petticoat Affair

Social scandal during Jackson's presidency. Cabinet wives ostracized Peggy Eaton, wife of Jackson's Secretary of War. Jackson defended her, leading to cabinet resignations and reshaping political alliances.

Policy of Rotation/Spoils System

Jackson replaced government officials with his loyal supporters, arguing for rotation in office. Critics saw it as patronage and corruption. It became a lasting feature of U.S. politics.

Specie Circular

1836 order requiring payment for federal land in gold or silver. Aimed at curbing speculation but drained specie reserves, worsening the Panic of 1837.

Zachary Taylor

12th president (1849-50). A Mexican-American War hero, he opposed expansion of slavery into new territories. Died suddenly, cutting his presidency short.

Kitchen Cabinet

Jackson's informal group of trusted advisors outside the official cabinet. Critics accused him of bypassing official structures and abusing power.

Whigs

Political party formed in opposition to Jackson. Favored congressional supremacy, modernization, economic development, and internal improvements. Leaders included Henry Clay and Daniel Webster.

Worcester v. Georgia

1832 Supreme Court case where Marshall ruled that Georgia laws had no force in Cherokee territory. Jackson allegedly responded, 'John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it,' and ignored the ruling. It demonstrated the limits of judicial power and led to forced Indian Removal.