Anatomy - Lecture 1

superior

above

inferior

below

superficial

closer to the body surface

deep

farther from the body surface

anterior (ventral)

toward the front or belly

posterior (distal)

toward the back or spine

medial

toward the mid-sagittal plane

lateral

away from the mid-sagittal plane

proximal

closer to the point of attachment or origin

distal

farther from the point of attachment or origin

ipsilateral

on the same side of the body (right or left)

contralateral

on opposite sides of the body (right and left)

mid-sagittal plane

vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body dividing body into left and right halves

sagittal/parasagittal planes

vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the mid-sagittal plane

frontal/coronal plane

vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body at a right angle to the median plane dividing body into anterior and posterior parts

transverse/transaxial/axial planes

horizontal planes passing through the body at right angles to the mid-sagittal and frontal planes dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

bilateral

paired structures that occur in both the left and right sides of the body

unilateral

an unpaired structure on either side or in the median plane of the body

flexion

bending or decreasing the angle; movement anterior

extension

straightening or increasing the angle; movement posterior

dorsiflexion

movement that decreases the angle of the ankle joint; heel strike during locomotion

plantar flexion

movement that increases the angle of the ankle joint; propulsion during locomotion

abduction

movement in a frontal plane away from the median plane

adduction

movement in a frontal plane toward the median plane

medial/internal rotation

brings the anterior surface of a limb closer to the median plane

lateral/external rotation

takes the anterior surface of a limb away from the median plane

abduction of fingers and toes

move digits away from 3rd finger or 2nd toe

adduction of fingers and toes

movement of digits toward 3rd finger or 2nd toe

thumb movements

flexion and extension (frontal plane)

abduction and adduction (sagittal plane)

opposition

reposition

opposition

movement in which the pad of the thumb is brought to a pad of another finger

reposition

movement from opposition back to the neutral position

lateral flexion

special form of abduction for neck and trunk

circumduction

circular movement involving flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction; distal end of part moves in circle

pronation

rotation of forearm that medially rotates the distal ends of the radius and ulna so that they cross

supination

rotation of forearm that laterally rotates the distal ends of the radius and ulna so that they uncross

eversion

movement that turns the sole of the foot away from the median plane

inversion

movement that turns the sole of the foot toward the median plane

jaw movements

protrusion - anterior movement

retrusion - posterior movement

lateral deviation - left or right

elevation

movement in the superior direction; scapula, mandible, superior eyelid, tongue, larynx or hyoid

depression

movement in the inferior direction; scapula, mandible, superior eyelid, tongue, larynx or hyoid

protraction

anterolateral movement of scapula on thoracic wall

retraction

posteromedial movement of scapula on thoracic wall

types of joints based on structure

fibrous - bones joined by fibrous connective tissue, no joint cavity, little to no movement

cartilaginous - bones joined by cartilage

synovial - bones joined by a synovial capsule with a fluid filled cavity

fibrous joints

sutures

syndesmoses

gomphoses

sutures

seams between bones of the skull joined by sutural ligaments made of inner and outer layers of periosteum and dense fibrous connective tissue; can become ossified; some interdigitated like sagittal suture or smooth like intermaxillary suture in hard palate

syndesmoses

bones joined by ligaments or a fibrous membrane; some movement; examples include interosseus membrane between radius and ulna and interosseus membrane between tibia and fibula

gomphoses

specialized joint between teeth and the alveolar sockets in maxilla and mandible; periodontal ligaments connect the teeth to the sockets; some slight movement

cartilaginous joints

primary (synchondroses)

secondary (symphyses)

primary cartilaginous joints (synchondroses)

two bones joined by hyaline cartilage with little to no movement; examples include epiphyseal plates and 1st sternocostal joint

secondary cartilaginous joints (symphyses)

two bones joined by fibrocartilage with slight movement; examples include pubic symphysis and intervertebral joints

synovial joints

articular surfaces of bones are within a joint cavity enclosed by a joint capsule (inner synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid and outer fibrous capsule that is continuous with periosteum); articular surfaces covered in hyaline cartilage

types of synovial joints by shape

plane

hinge

saddle

condyloid

ball-and-socket

pivot

plane joints

articular surfaces are flat; some gliding movements; examples are acromioclavicular joint, intercarpal, intertarsal

hinge joints

one convex and one concave articular surface; flexion and extension movements; examples are elbow joint, knee, and interphalangeal joints

saddle joints

saddle-shaped articular surfaces; flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction; examples are sternoclavicular joint, 1st carpometacarpal joint (thumb)

condyloid joint

elliptical ball and socket; flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction; examples are metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles), temporomandibular joint, and atlantooccipital joint

ball-and-socket joint

one spherical articular surface and one bowl shaped articular surface (socket); flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction, medial/lateral rotation; examples are hip and shoulder

pivot joint

rounded process of bone rotates within a ring of bone and ligament; rotation around one central axis; examples are median atlantoaxial joint, proximal and distal radioulnar joints

primary tissues

nervous - communication

muscle - movement

epithelial - boundaries, protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration

connective - supports, protects, and connects other tissues

classification of tissues is based on

structure and functions of cells

composition of extracellular matrix

simple squamous epithelium main functions

diffusion of gases in lungs; filtering blood in kidneys; internal surface of serous membranes that secrete serous fluid; internal lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

simple cuboidal epithelium main functions

secretion and absorption within kidney nephrons; secretion of glands such as salivary

simple columnar epithelium main functions

absorption and secretion within digestive tract; line respiratory tract (secrete and move mucus) and uterine tubes (move oocytes); ducts of internal glands

pseudostratified columnar epithelium main functions

line tracheobronchial tree, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and auditory tubes and secrete mucus; sperm-carrying ducts; ducts of internal glands

stratified squamous epithelium main functions

protection against abrasion and infection; water barrier — reduce water loss from the body

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium main functions

inner layer of living cells and outer layer of dead cells; outer cells contain water-resistant keratin to reduce water loss from body; outer surface is dry; epidermis of skin

non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium main functions

living cells in both inner and outer layers; a layer of fluid covers the outer surface of the epithelium; lining of mouth to esophagus, rectum, vagina, inferior urethra, and cornea

stratified cuboidal epithelium main functions

ducts of external glands (mammary and sweat); protects against infection and abrasion

stratified columnar epithelium main functions

line pharynx, male urethra, and ducts of external glands; sometimes found at transitions between other types of epithelium

transitional epithelium main functions

can be distended; lines inner surface of urinary bladder, ureters, and superior urethra

unicellular epithelial glands

single cells within epithelium; mucus secreting mucus and goblet cells in digestive and respiratory systems

exocrine epithelial glands

remain connected with epithelium from which they are derived and a duct is maintained; secrete substances through the duct to the outer surface of epithelium

endocrine epithelial glands

separate from the epithelium from which they are derived by losing the duct; surrounded by extensive blood capillary system; secrete hormones into extracellular space and travel in blood

gastric gland structure

simple branched tubular

sebaceous gland structure

simple branched alveolar

mammary gland structure

compound alveolar

salivary gland structure

compound tubuloalveolar

merocrine gland

secrete products by exocytosis with no loss of other cellular material; sweat, salivary, pancreas, lacrimal, and male glands

holocrine gland

products accumulate in cytoplasm of cells, then cell ruptures and entire cell becomes part of secretion; sebaceous

apocrine gland

products are within the cytoplasm of the cells and a portion of the cell is pinched off to become part of the secretion; lipids from mammary glands

multicellular epithelial glands

merocrine

holocrine

apocrine

hypothalamus

secrete neurohormones that are stored in and released from the posterior pituitary gland and increase or decrease the secretions of the anterior pituitary gland

pituitary gland

posterior - 2 neurohormones (ADH and oxytocin)

anterior - 9 hormones in response to hypothalamus

thyroid gland

2 hormones (thyroid hormones and calcitonin)

parathyroid gland

1 hormone (parathyroid hormone)

adrenal medulla

2 neurohormones (epinephrine)

adrenal cortex

3 hormones

pineal gland

1 neurohormone (melatonin)

pancreas

2 hormones (insulin and glucagon)

other organs that secrete hormones

testes, ovaries, placenta, thymus, digestive tract, kidneys, heart, skin, embryos/fetus, connective tissue such as adipose

extracellular matrix components

ground substance (extracellular fluid, cell adhesion proteins, proteoglycans) and protein fibers (collagen, reticular, and elastic)

loose connective tissue areolar

fibroblast cells secrete a mainly fluid extracellular matrix with random network of protein fibers (collagen, elastic, and reticular); surrounds and cushions organs, blood vessels, and nerves and binds other tissues together but still allows movement; examples include subcutaneous tissue binds dermis of skin to underlying muscle and lamina propria part of mucus membranes deep to epithelium

loose connective tissue adipose

insulation, cushioning, and energy storage; around kidneys, heart, breasts around mammary glands

loose connective tissue reticular

found within lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow; spaces between reticular fibers contains immune cells; filter out dysfunctional RBCs in spleen

dense regular collagenous connective tissue

fibroblast cells secrete collagen fibers that form thick bundles and fill the majority of extracellular space; fibers oriented in predominantly one direction; forms tendons and most ligaments; collagen fibers give tissue tensile strength in one direction

dense regular elastic connective tissue

fibroblasts secrete collagen and elastic fibers that form thick bundles and fill majority of extracellular space; fibers are oriented in predominantly one direction; forms some ligaments such as vocal ligaments, nuchal ligaments (neck), and ligaments between vertebrae

dense irregular collagenous connective tissue

fibroblast cells secrete collagen fibers that form thick bundles and fill the majority of extracellular space, some elastic fibers; fibers are oriented in multiple directions; found in dermis of skin and outer coverings of bone (periosteum), cartilage (perichondrium), muscles, organs, and nerves; collagen fibers give the tissue strength in every direction; elastic fibers provide some elasticity

dense irregular elastic connective tissue

fibroblast cells secrete collagen fibers and elastic fibers that form thick bundles and fill the majority of the extracellular space; fibers are oriented in multiple directions; found in elastic arteries (aorta and pulmonary trunk); elastic fibers allow the arteries to be stretched and then recoil to original diameter

hyaline cartilage

extracellular matrix composed of equal amounts of evenly dispersed collagen fibers and proteoglycans; provides support with some flexibility; forms most embryonic skeleton before bone is formed and forms epiphyseal plates; found in rings and plates of tracheobronchial tree, costal cartilage of ribs, nasal cartilages, and articulating surfaces of bones within synovial joints

fibrocartilage

extracellular matrix consists of more collagen than proteoglycans; thick bundles of collagen; capable of withstanding great compressive forces; found in intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, and articular disks of joints (TMJ, knee, and sternoclavicular)