OPENSTAX TEST Opinion voting elections

Public Opinion

A collection of the opinions of an individual or a group of individuals on a topic, person, or event.

Political Socialization

The process of learning the norms and practices of a political system through others and societal institutions.

Agent of Political Socialization

A person or entity that teaches and influences others about politics through the use of information (e.g., family, schools, friends, media).

Overt Content

Political information whose author makes clear that only one side is presented (clear bias).

Covert Content

Ideologically slanted information presented as unbiased information in order to influence public opinion (hidden bias).

Random Sample

A limited number of people from the overall population selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen.

Representative Sample

A group of respondents demographically similar to the population of interest (matching demographics like age, race, gender, income).

Margin of Error

A number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual preferences of the total population of citizens. (Lower is better).

Heuristics

Shortcuts or generalizations for decision-making (voters often use these to decide without full information).

Exit Poll

An election poll taken by interviewing voters as they leave a polling place.

Straw Poll

An informal and unofficial election poll conducted with a non-random population (often unreliable).

Favorability Poll

A public opinion poll that measures a public's positive feelings about a candidate or politician.

Leading Question

A question worded to lead a respondent to give a desired answer.

Push Poll

Politically biased campaign information presented as a poll in order to change minds (a form of campaign advertising/smear).

Bradley Effect

The difference between a poll result and an election result in which voters gave a socially desirable poll response rather than a true response that might be perceived as racist.

Political Culture

The prevailing political attitudes and beliefs within a society or region.

Political Elite

A political opinion leader who alerts the public to changes or problems (often shapes discourse).

Diffuse Support

The widespread belief that a country and its legal system are legitimate (a general level of public trust).

Horserace Coverage

Day-to-day media coverage of candidate performance in the election, focusing more on polling results than policy issues.

Bandwagon Effect

Increased media coverage of candidates who poll high, leading to increased support from voters who want to join the perceived winning side.

Theory of Delegate Representation

A theory that assumes the politician is in office to be the voice of the people and to vote only as the people want.

Electoral Mandate

High approval that a president can use to push policies.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Prohibited states from denying voting rights based on race and struck down discriminatory practices.

National Voter Registration Act (NVRA, 1993)

Required states to allow citizens to register to vote when applying for or renewing a driver's license, and when applying for certain government services.

Help America Vote Act (HAVA, 2002)

Required states to maintain accurate voter registration rolls and improve election technology.

Residency Requirement

The stipulation that a citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before they can register to vote as a resident of that state.

Voting-Age Population (VAP)

The number of citizens over eighteen, yielding lower turnout percentages, often just over 50%.

Voting-Eligible Population (VEP)

The number of citizens eligible to vote, yielding slightly higher, more accurate turnout percentages.

Registered Voters

Turnout calculated as a percentage of citizens who are registered to vote, historically around 87%.

Demographics

Citizens over sixty-five, those with high income, and those with advanced education are the most likely to vote.

Barriers

High number of yearly elections, strict registration systems, and photo ID requirements can decrease turnout.

Solutions

States increasingly use early voting and mail-only ballots to combat the limitations of one-day, weekday voting.

Global Comparison

The U.S. has lower turnout than many other nations, some of which use automatic registration or compulsory voting.

Voter Fatigue

The result when voters grow tired of voting and stay home from the polls.

Classical Liberalism

Based on belief in individual liberties and rights and the idea of free will, with little role for government.

Modern Liberalism

Focused on equality and supporting government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality.

Traditional Conservatism

Supports the authority of the monarchy and the church; believes government provides the rule of law.

Modern Conservatism

Prioritizes individual liberties, preferring a smaller government that stays out of the economy.

Socialism

Government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic services and equal opportunities.

Communism

In theory, government promotes common ownership of all property and materials to prevent exploitation; in practice, often maintained by force.

Fascism

A political system of total control by the ruling party/leader over the economy, military, society, culture, and often private lives.

Ballot Fatigue

The result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of a long ballot.

Election Cycle

The election cycle involves nomination (primaries/caucuses) followed by the general election and the formal selection of the president.

Primary

A standard ballot election for selecting party nominees.

Closed Primary

An election in which only voters registered with a party may vote for that party's candidates.

Open Primary

An election in which any registered voter may vote in any party's primary or caucus (but only for one party).

Top-Two Primary

A primary in which the two candidates with the most votes, regardless of party, become the nominees for the general election.

Caucus

A form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election; usually reserved for presidential elections.

Delegates

Party members chosen to represent a particular candidate at the party's state- or national-level nominating convention.

Platform

The set of issues important to the political party and the party delegates (formalized at the national convention).

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Organizations created to raise and spend money for political campaigns; have strict contribution limits and coordinate with candidates.

Super PACs

Organizations that can fundraise and spend as they please to support or attack a candidate, but they cannot contribute directly to a candidate or coordinate with their campaign.

Electoral College

The constitutionally created group of individuals, chosen by the states, with the responsibility of formally selecting the next U.S. president.

Winner-Take-All System

The system used by most states where all electoral votes for a state are given to the candidate who wins the most votes in that state.

District System

The means by which electoral votes are divided between candidates based on who wins districts and/or the state (used by Maine and Nebraska).

Midterm Elections

The congressional elections that occur in the even-numbered years between presidential election years, in the middle of the president's term.

Straight-Ticket Voting

The practice of voting only for candidates from the same party down the ballot.

Coattail Effect

The result when a popular presidential candidate helps candidates from the same party win their own elections.

Chronic Minority

Voters who belong to political parties that tend not to be competitive in national elections because they are too small to become a majority or are disadvantaged by the Electoral College distribution in their state.

Incumbent

The current holder of a political office.

Incumbency Advantage

The advantage held by officeholders that allows them to often win reelection (due to name recognition, fundraising, existing network, and franking privilege).

Shadow Campaign

A campaign run by Super PACs and other organizations without the coordination of the candidate (often used for negative advertising).

Direct Democracy

Direct democracy is practiced at the state level, allowing citizens to bypass the state legislature to create, approve, or reject laws and officials.

Initiative

A law or constitutional amendment proposed and passed by the voters (also called a proposition). Citizens collect signatures, state approves the measure, then put to a ballot election.

Referendum

A yes or no vote by citizens on a law or candidate proposed by the state government.

Recall

The removal of a politician or government official by the voters. Citizens petition for a special election to vote on whether to remove the official before their term ends.

Mass Media

The collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public (radio, television, print, and Internet).

Watchdog Role

The media's role in monitoring for corruption.

Agenda Setting

The media's ability to choose which issues or topics get attention, thus determining the national discussion.

Conglomerates

Large media corporations that own many stations and companies, which can create a monopoly and limit the diversity of information flow.

Public Relations

Biased communication intended to improve the image of people, companies, or organizations, distinct from neutral journalism.

Muckraking

News coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices.

Yellow Journalism

Sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories.

Soft News

News presented in an entertaining style, preferred by younger viewers.

Beat

The coverage area assigned to journalists for news or stories (e.g., the White House beat, the local police beat).

Digital Paywall

The need for a paid subscription to access published online material, reflecting the struggle of print media to remain financially viable.

Citizen Journalism

Video and print news posted to the Internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media, rapidly changing the flow of information.

Prior Restraint

A government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it, such as forbidding publication; ruled almost always unconstitutional.

Libel

Printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms their reputation; must be proven false and show actual malice toward public figures.

Slander

Spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms their reputation.

Indecency Regulations

Laws that limit indecent and obscene material on public airwaves; indecent material can only be broadcast between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m.

Equal-Time Rule

An FCC policy that requires all candidates running for office to be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities.

Fairness Doctrine

A defunct 1949 FCC policy that required broadcast license holders to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner, phased out in the 1980s.

Sunshine Laws

Laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public, fostering transparency.

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

A federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens.

Reporter's Privilege

The right of a journalist to keep a source confidential.

Hypodermic Theory

The initial idea (1920s) that information is placed directly in a citizen's brain and accepted without question. Mostly dismissed.

Minimal Effects Theory

The idea that the media have little effect on citizens; people rely more on prior beliefs and interpersonal discussion. Found that media mostly reinforced existing beliefs.

Cultivation Theory

The more recent idea that media affect a citizen's worldview through the sheer volume of information presented, gradually cultivating their perception of reality. Acknowledges long-term, subtle influence.

Framing

The process of giving a news story a specific context or background (e.g., framing a tax cut as either 'pro-growth' or 'pro-rich').

Priming

The process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way. By covering certain issues (e.g., the economy) heavily, the media establishes the criteria citizens will use to evaluate a politician.

Two-Party System

A system in which two major parties win all or almost all elections.

Plurality Voting (First-Past-the-Post)

The election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share. This system penalizes minor parties, as they rarely win the most votes, encouraging voters to choose one of the two major parties.

Majoritarian Voting

A type of election in which the winning candidate must receive at least 50 percent of the votes, even if a run-off election is required.

Proportional Representation

A party-based election rule in which the number of seats a party receives is a function of the share of votes it receives in an election.

Third Parties

Political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties.

Party Realignment

A shifting of party alliances within the electorate, usually caused by a major political or social event.

Critical Election

An election that represents a sudden, clear, and long-term shift in voter allegiances, marking a major change in the two-party system (e.g., 1860, 1932).

Political Parties

Organizations made up of groups of people with similar interests that try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek and hold public office.

Impact of the Media

Research on media impact has evolved from direct influence to subtle, but powerful, effects on how citizens interpret the world and political events.