Psychology C2

aims

A statement of what the researcher intend to find out in a research study

cofounding variables

Any variable which varies systematically with the independent variable that might potentially affect the dependent variable and thereby confound the results.

debrief

To inform the participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the same state they were in at the start of the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue; it is a means of dealing with ethical issues.

dependent variables

The variable measured by the experimenter.

ethical issues

Concern questions of right and wrong. They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study.

experiments

A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable.

hypothesis

A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable.

independent variable

Some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable

operationalise

Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested. A concept such as 'educational attainment' needs to be specified more clearly if we are going to investigate it. For example it might be operationalised as 'GCSE grade in Maths'.

standardised procedures

A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study. This includes standardised instructions

valid consent

Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate

confounding variable

A variable that is not the independent variable (IV) under study but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the dependent variable may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV,and therefore the outcome is meaningless. To 'confound' means to cause confusion.

external validity

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised: to other settings (ecological validity); to other groups of people (population validity); over time (historical validity).

extraneous variable

Do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependent variable. They are nuisance variables that muddy the waters and make it more difficult to detect a

internal validity

The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding/ extraneous variables.

mundane realism

Refers to how a study mirrors the real world. The research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world.

control

Refers to the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher.

validity

Refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one.

alternative hypothesis

Any hypothesis except the null hypothesis. It is the alternative to the null hypothesis

confederate

An individual in as study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator.

directional hypothesis

states the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants.

experimental hypothesis

The term used to describe the alternative hypothesis in an experiment.

non directional hypothesis

predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference.

null hypothesis

The assumption of no relationship (difference, association, etc.) between variables being studied.

pilot study

A small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.

laboratory

An environment which can be controlled by the researcher.In particular a researcher wishes to control extraneous variables and, in an experiment, needs to manipulate the independent variables. This is easy in a controlled environment

online

Refers to being connected via the internet to another source.You may be connected to a website or could be using an app on a mobile phone. Data can be collected from individuals.

field

This is not the same as 'a field'.Conducting research in 'the field' usually means working with participants in an environment that is more familiar to them.

difference study

A kind of quasi experiment. The independent variable is actually not something that varies at all it is a condition that exists. The researcher records the effect of this quasi IV on a dependent variable (DV). As with a natural experiment, the lack of manipulation of the IV and the lack of random allocation means that causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn.

quasi experiment

Studies that are 'almost' experiments. A research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable (IV) directly. The IV would vary whether or not the researcherwas interested. The researcher records the effect of the IV on a dependent variable(DV) this DV may be measured in a lab. Strictly speaking, an experiment involves the deliberate manipulation of an IV and random allocation to conditions by the experimenter neither of which apply to a quasi experiment and therefore causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn

demand characteristics

A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.

researcher bias

Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participant's performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects (as a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participant) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the investigator designing the study). Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable

bias

A systematic distortion.

generalisation

Appling the findings of a particular study to the target population

opportunity sample

A sample of Participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.

quota sampling

Similar to a stratified sample except participants are not selected from strata using a random sampling technique

random sampling

A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected

sampling

The selection of participants from the sampling frame with the aim of producing a representative selection of people from that group

sampling frame

The source material from which a sample is drawn.

self selected sample

A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample. Also called a self-selected sample.

snowball sample

Relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants.

stratified sampling

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the target population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups.

systematic sampling

A sample obtained by selecting every nth person (where n is any number). This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that.

target population

The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made.

confidentiality

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected.

deception

A participant is not told the true aims of a study (e.g. what participation will involve) and thus cannot give valid consent.

privacy

A person's right to control the flow of information about themselves

risk of harm

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment beyond what would be normal for them to experience

valid consent

Participants are given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate

debriefing

A post research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue; it is a means of dealing with ethical issues.

ethical guidelines (code of conduct)

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity.

ethics committee

A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins.

presumptive consent

A method of dealing with lack of valid consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study, it is presumed that the real participants would also have agreed.

right to withdraw

Participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it was not possible to give valid consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced

behavioural categories

Dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours

covert observation

When a participant is unaware of being observed. The observer may watch through a one way mirror or hidden in some other way.

event sampling

An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs.

inter observer reliability

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.

non participant observation

The observer is separate from the people being observed.

observer bias

Observers' expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations.

operationalisation

Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

participant observation

Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity.

social desirability bias

A distortion in the way people answer questions, they tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light

time sampling

An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds or 20 seconds or 1 minute. The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval.

closed questions

Questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one. Produces quantitative data

interview

A research method or technique that involves a face to face, 'real time' interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data.

interview bias

The effect of an interviewer's expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondent's behaviour

open questions

Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data.

qualitative data

Non numerical data

quantitative data

Data in numbers

questionnaire

Data are collected through the use of written questions

semi structured interview

The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the respondent's answers guide subsequent questions.

social desirability bias

A distortion in the way people answer questions, they tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light.

structured interviews

Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance

concurrent validity

A means of establishing external validity by comparing an existing test or questionnaire with the one you are interested in.

construct validity

Demonstrating the extent to which performance on the test measures an identified underlying construct, concerns internal validity.

content validity

Aims to demonstrate that the content (e.g.questions) of a test/measurement represents the area of interest, concerns internal validity.

external reliability

The extent to which a measure varies from one occasion to another. Low external reliability would mean there is quite a bit of variation over time.

external validity

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other situations and people.

face validity

A form of external validity, the extent to which test items look like what the test claims to measure.

internal reliability

A measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself.

internal validity

The degree a study or test is measuring what was intended to be measured.

continuous variable

A variable that can take on any value within a certain range. Liking for football (on a scale of 1 to 10) is continuous whereas the football team a person supports isn't. The latter could be arranged in any order.

correlation

Determining the extent of an association between two variables; co variables may not be linked at all (zero correlation), they may both increase together (positive correlation), or as one co variable increases, the other decreases (negative correlation).

correlation coefficient

A number between negative 1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co variables in a correlational analysis are associated.

curvilinear correlation

A non linear relationship between co variables.

intervening variable

A variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable (heat) which causes the increase in ice cream sales and the increase in violence

linear correlation

A systematic relationship between co variables that is defined by a straight line.

scatter diagram

A graphical representation of the association(i.e.the correlation) between two sets of scores.

significance

A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test.

case study

A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. Case studies provide a rich record of human experience but are hard to generalise from.

content analysis

A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes.

brain scans

A technique used to investigate the functioning of the brain by taking images of the living brain.

cross sectional study

One group of participants representing one section of society (e.g. young people or working class people) are compared with participants from another group (e.g. old people or middle class people)

longitudinal study/research

A study conducted over along period of time. Often a form of repeated measures design in which participants are assessed on two or more occasions as they get older. However, some longitudinal research is not experimental, for example people may simply be observed for a number of years, as in a case study.

fraction, percentage, ratio

Methods of expressing parts of a whole.

order of magnitude

is a means of expressing a number by focusing on the overall size (magnitude). This is done by expressing the number in terms of powers of 10.

significance figure

refers to the number of important single digits used to represent a number. The digits are 'important' because, if removed, the number would be quite different in magnitude.

mean

The arithmetic average of a data set. Takes the exact values of all the data into account.

measure of central tendency

A descriptive statistic that provides information about a 'typical' value for a data set.