AP Psychology Unit 1

Turner’s syndrome

Females have only one X chromosome and fail to develop secondary sex characteristics at puberty

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Males have XXY and fail to develop secondary sex characteristics but breast tissue does

Down Syndrome

3 copies of 21st chromosome leading to round head, flat nasal bridge

Tay-Sachs syndrome

Progressive loss of nervous function and death of a baby

PKU (Phenylketonuria)

Results in severe, irreversible brain damage unless fed with a special diet low in Phenylalanine. They can’t process a certain type of amino acid, which builds up and becomes toxic

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors ex) extraversion, openness to experience

Natural Selection

Darwin’s theory that traits that increase an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed down

Evolutionary Explanations of Behavior

How certain behaviors may have evolved due to survival advantages ex) aggression, mating patterns

Instrumental Aggression

Has a goal to meet for some type of benefit

Hostile Aggression

Result of pain, anger, or frustration. An attempt to strike out against something or someone seen as the cause of this discomfort

Monozygotic Twins

Shares 100% of their genes → used to study role of heredity in behavior

Dizygotic Twins

Share about 50% of their genes, like regular siblings → used for comparison in nature vs. nurture

Adoption Studies

Comparing adopted children to their biological and adoptive families to separate influences of genetics from env.

Epigenetics

The study of how env. factors can influence gene expression w/o altering DNA sequence

Methylation

A chemical modification of DNA that can turn genes on/off, influenced by env. factors

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change in response to experience and env, such as through learning or recovery from injury

Critical Periods

Times during development when the brain is especially sensitive to env. input

Neurons

Building blocks of our body (=nerve cells)

Soma/Cell body

Cell’s life support center

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons

Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands 통로

Myelin Sheath

Covers the axon. A layer of fatty tissue that speeds up the impulse/action potential

Terminal branch/buttons

They form junctions with other cells

Action potential

A neuron’s “firing” moment

Depolarization

A neuron switches to positive inside to send an electrical signal

Repolarization

After a neuron fires, it resets its charge by pumping out positive ions

Refractory period

The “cool-down” time after a neuron fires before it can go again

Resting Potential

When a neuron is chilling with a negative charge, waiting to fire

All-or-None Response

A neuron either fires at full strength or not at all

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

“Practice makes perfect” for neurons—stronger connections improve learning and memory

Synapse

The tiny gap between neurons where chemical messages jump across.

Glial cells

The support crew of the brain, feeding and protecting neurons

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers between neurons

Reuptake

After sending a message, neurotransmitters are reabsorbed

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory (low levels → Alzheimer’s)

Dopamine

“Reward” neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion (too low → Parkinson’s/ too much → Schizophrenia)

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal (too low → Depression)

Norepinephrine

“Fight or Flight” neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal (too low → depress)

GABA (Gamma-aminobutryic acid)

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter (too low → anxiety, seizure, insomnia)

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter (too much → migraines)

Endorphin

Painkilling neurotransmitter

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Gathering info and transmitting CNS decision to other body parts

Afferent / Sensory neurons

Carry messages from the body’s tissues inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing

Efferent / Motor neurons

Carry instructions from the CNS to the body’s muscles

Somatic Nervous System

Enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

Enables involuntary control of our glands and muscles of internal organs, influencing such functions as heartbeat and digestion

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses and expends energy, fight or flight

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and conserves energy: decreasing heartbeat, lowering blood sugar, increasing digestion and salivation

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Decision maker of body composed of brain and spinal cord

Hypothalamus

The brain region controlling pituitary gland/ responsible for instinctual functions like hunger, thirst, temperature

Pituitary Gland

Master gland which secretes many hormones and affects other glands

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Detects brain waves that is used for sleep stages and dreaming

CT Scan (Computerized Axial Tomography)

X-ray which create 3D picture of brain that ONLY shows structure of the brain

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Measure structure and density of brain and location of brain material

PET (Positron Emission Technology)

Shows visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes which brain performs given task

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Most advanced tech that combines MRI and PET: reveal density, structure, activity of brain along where blood goes

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Responsible for sleeping and dreaming that connects hind brain with mid and forebrain

Cerebellum

Controls voluntary movements, posture, balance, and equilibrium

Reticular Formation

Responsible for a person being aroused and alert (damaged → deep coma)

Forebrain

Responsible for complex behaviors and mental processes: hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus

Hippocampus

Processes conscious and long term memories

Amygdala

Processes emotion like fear, anxiety

Thalamus

Processes information from all the senses EXCEPT smell

Limbic system

Associated with emotions and drives: hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

Cerebral cortex

Brain’s ultimate control and information processing center that is divided to 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes

Brain Lateralization

Some functions are more dominant in one side of the brain than the other

Left hemisphere

Active in logical and sequential tasks like speech and language

Right hemisphere

Active in spatial and creative tasks like drawing

Contralateral Control

Each hemisphere of the brain primarily controls the opposite side of the body

Corpus Callosum

Axon fiber that connect 2 hemispheres

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for abstract thought and emotional control and contain pre-frontal cortex, motor cortex, broca’s area (left)

Pre-frontal cortex

Part of making decisions that’s located in front part of frontal lobe

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary movement that is located at the back of the frontal lobe

Broca’s Area

Responsible for producing speech that is in the LEFT hemisphere of frontal lobe

Parietal Lobe

Responsible for interpreting bodily sensations that contain sensory & somato-sensory cortex

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for vision and interpreting messages from visual cortex

Temporal Lobe

Responsible for interpreting sound sensed by years and further the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area (left temporal lobe)

Wernicke’s area

Responsible for understanding speech located in LEFT temporal lobe

Consciousness

Level of awareness about ourselves and environment

Mere-exposure effect

We prefer stimuli we have experienced before over new one, even if we don’t remember

Priming

Research participants respond more quickly and accurately to stimuli they’ve been exposed to

Blindsight

Person can respond to visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Unconscious

Some events are unacceptable to our mind and thus repressed into unconscious

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock that occur on 24 hour cycle

NREM Stage 1

The lightest stage of sleep where you drift in and out, sometimes experiencing the feeling of falling like Hypnic Jerk

NREM Stage 2

A deeper sleep stage where heart rate slows, body temperature drops, and sleep spindles occur

NREM Stage 3

The deepest stage of sleep where the body repairs itself and growth hormones are released

REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

The stage of sleep where vivid dreams occur, the brain is highly active, and the body experiences temporary paralysis

Insomnia

Difficulty in falling asleep due to stress

Narcolepsy

Uncontrollable sleep attacks

Sleep Apnea

Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking that occurs in deep sleep

Manifest content + Latent content

Apparent content of dream / hidden meaning of dream

Activation synthesis

Dreams are brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity (dream theory)

Information processing theory

Dreams help sort and fix experiences and stress in memories (dream theory)

Role theory

Some people are just acting out the role of a hypnotized person (hypnosis theory)

Dissociation theory (Ernest Hilgard)

Hypnosis divides consciousness voluntarily: one part responds to hypnotist while another part is aware of reality (hypnosis theory)