AP Psych 3.7-3.9 Vocab

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

habituates

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or stimulation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behaviors

behavior that operates on environment, producing a consequence

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

neutral stimuli

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (like salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (like the dog's food)

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally--naturally and automatically--triggers an unconditioned response

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger an conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

generalization

(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely.

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.