AP psch final

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behavior; behavior is learned through conditioning (reinforcement & punishment).

Evolutionary Perspective

Explains behavior as adaptations shaped by natural selection; focuses on survival and reproduction.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization; Maslow & Rogers.

Cognitive Perspective

Studies mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences; Freud.

Social-Cultural Perspective

Examines how behavior and thinking are shaped by social situations and cultural norms.

Biological Perspective

Explains behavior through brain structures, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetics.

Experimental Method

Manipulates an independent variable to determine cause-and-effect.

Non-Experimental Method

Research without manipulation; cannot show causation.

Experimental Study

Uses manipulation and random assignment to test cause-and-effect.

Quasi-Experimental Study

Compares pre-existing groups without random assignment.

Meta-Analysis

Combines results of many studies to find overall patterns.

Applied Research

Research designed to solve real-world problems.

Case Study

In-depth study of one individual or small group.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural environment without interference.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance.

Random Selection

Choosing participants randomly from a population.

Theory

Organized explanation that predicts behavior or events.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction derived from a theory.

Population

Entire group of interest.

Sample

Subset of the population studied.

Control Group

Group not exposed to the independent variable.

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the independent variable.

Hindsight Bias

Belief that one knew the outcome after it occurred.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking evidence that supports existing beliefs.

Critical Thinking

Evaluating evidence logically while avoiding bias.

Mean

Arithmetic average.

Median

Middle value.

Mode

Most frequent value.

Range

Highest minus lowest score.

Standard Deviation

Measure of score dispersion.

Normal Distribution

Symmetrical bell-shaped curve.

Positive Skew

Right tail; most scores are low.

Negative Skew

Left tail; most scores are high.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores below a given score.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Strength and direction of relationship (-1 to +1).

Descriptive Statistics

Summarize data.

Inferential Statistics

Determine if results generalize to a population.

Statistical Significance

Likelihood results occurred by chance (p < .05).

Operational Definition

Precise description of how variables are measured.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results.

Independent Variable

Variable manipulated by researcher.

Dependent Variable

Variable measured as outcome.

Confounding Variable

Uncontrolled variable affecting results.

Placebo Effect

Change due to expectations, not treatment.

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants unaware of group assignment.

Double-Blind Procedure

Participants and researchers unaware of group assignment.

Informed Consent

Participants informed of risks and procedures.

Assent

Agreement of a minor to participate.

IDCARP

Ethical principles: Informed consent, Deception, Confidentiality, Anonymity, Right to withdraw, Protection from harm.

Debriefing

Explaining study purpose after participation.

Sampling Bias

Sample does not represent population.

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating accuracy of one’s judgments.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship that does not exist.

Nominal Data

Categories without order.

Ordinal Data

Ordered categories without equal intervals.

Interval Data

Equal intervals, no true zero.

Ratio Data

Equal intervals with a true zero.

Consciousness

Awareness of self and environment.

Circadian Rhythm

24-hour biological sleep–wake cycle.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Hypothalamus; controls circadian rhythm.

Melatonin

Pineal hormone; promotes sleep.

REM Sleep

Dreaming sleep; brain active, body paralyzed.

NREM Sleep

Restorative sleep; stages N1–N3.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of activity in N2; memory consolidation.

Delta Waves

Slow waves in deep N3 sleep.

REM Rebound

Increased REM after sleep deprivation.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep.

Night Terrors

Intense fear during N3 sleep.

Sleepwalking

Behaviors during N3 sleep.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams from brain interpreting random neural activity.

Information-Processing Theory

Dreams aid memory consolidation.

Psychoanalytic Dream Theory

Dreams reflect unconscious wishes.

Hypnosis

Focused attention and increased suggestibility.

Posthypnotic Suggestion

Instruction carried out after hypnosis.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals altering perception, mood, or behavior.

Tolerance

Need more substance for same effect.

Withdrawal

Distress after stopping substance.

Sensation

Detecting physical stimuli.

Perception

Interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception from sensory input upward.

Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by expectations.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus.

Inattentional Blindness

Missing visible stimuli due to attention elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failure to notice changes.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus detected 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold

Smallest noticeable change.

Weber’s Law

Difference threshold is proportional.

Retina

Eye layer with rods and cones.

Rods

Light/dark and peripheral vision.

Cones

Color and detail vision.

Fovea

Sharp central vision.

Optic Nerve

Carries visual signals to brain.

Occipital Lobes

Visual processing.

Frontal Lobes

Decision-making, planning, personality, motor control.

Parietal Lobes

Touch and spatial awareness.

Temporal Lobes

Hearing, language, memory.

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination.