Psychology Final Exam

What is developmental psychology?

Study of how behaviour and mental processes change over the lifespan

What are the two domains of human development 

1) Developmental domains: 

Physical - Changes in biological nature 

Walks - between 11-13 months

Cognitive - Changes in thought, intelligences and language

Says first word - 48-59 months

Socioemotional - Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality 

Feels ashamed - 24 months 

Laughs - 3-5 months 

2) Stages: 

Prenatal development 

Infancy/Childhood

Adolescence

Adulthood

How is development studied? 

1) Cross-sectional design - Examine people of different ages at a single point in time 

• Vulnerable to cohort effects: Groups who lived during one period can differ in some systematic way from groups who lived during another period

2) Longitudinal design - Examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time. It's costly, time-consuming, vulnerable to attrition (people dropping out) which may bias the sample. 

What are the stages of prenatal development? 

1) Germinal - 2-week period from conception - zygote (fertilized egg, goes down the fallopian tube to implant in the uterus.

2) Cells divide and duplicate 

3) Embroytic - 3 - 8 weeks - Cell specialization begins and internal organs, limbs, facial features develop

4) Fetal stage - 9 weeks - birth - Internal system mature - brain development occurs (at 6 month mark, 250,000 neurons per minute develop). 

What are threats to the prenatal environment? 

Teratogens - Any substance that can pass from mother to unborn child and impair development. 

• Alcohol - can cause brain abnormalities, cognitive deficits, or facial malformations. Unclear how much alcohol is too much (no drinking is best). Many women don’t know they are pregnant for the first 2-3 months. Lots of stigma. 

• Tobacco - Higher risk or stillbirth (the death of a baby in the womb after 20 weeks of pregnancy, resulting in birth with no signs of life) or lower birth weight 

How aware are newborns? 

• They switch in between internal and external awareness. 

• Fetuses showed same type of brain response as new borns 

What do we know about infant and child development? 

Infants are born with some motor reflexes that are hardwired - Rooting reflex, sucking reflex, gripping reflex. 

What motor and perceptual skills do infants have? 

• Infants' motor and perceptual skills develop together and mutually promote each other.

• Not all babies follow a universal sequence of motor development.  

How does motor development progress? 

• Ages might be slightly different; however, most children will likely follow the same motor development pathway. 

How do infants' brains develop? 

• Myelination begins prenatally and continues after birth

• Synaptic connections increase dramatically 

• Brain mass increases dramatically 

What is synaptic density

Synaptic density is an important indication of the extent of connectivity between neurons

There’s two processes: 

• Proliferation of neural connections 

• Strengthening of connections and elimination of unused connections 

What is cognition (Piaget)

It is the study of how children learn, think, reason, communicate and remember.

How does cognition develop?

(Piaget) Children develop schemas (Understanding of and expectations about how the world works) which change as children gain experience in the world.

How do schemas change?

Assimilation - Application of existing schemas (mental patterns) to new situations (apply what they already know)

Suck on breast —> Suck on bottle

Recognizing a moose as a cow

Accommodation - Modification of schema to fit new experiences

Recognize the moose as a different type of animal

May suck differently

What are Piaget’s 4 cognitive stages of development?

1) Sensorimotor stage (birth —> 2 years)
Understand object permanence
Mental representation milestone - The ability to think about things not in their immediate environment

2) Preoperational stage (2 —> 7 years)
Children use symbols and imagination
They start to think beyond the present
They are egocentric (have trouble seeing other points of view)


3) Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
Children start to think logically
Understand conversation
Understand simple logic and changes in numbers (simple addition or subtraction)
Their thinking is better when they can see or touch the objects

4) Formal operational stage (11 years —> adulthood)
Can think in more abstract ways
They can think about ideas and possibilities for things not right in front of them
Can use hypothetical-deductive reasoning (solve problems step by step)

What is Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory?

Learning is shaped by social interaction and culture.

• Cognitive development happens through interaction with others

• Uses zone of Proximal Development: learning just beyond current ability (with help)

• Uses scaffolding: support that is gradually removed

• Language helps develop thinking

What was Harlow’s monkey study?

Harlow's monkey study investigated attachment in infant rhesus monkeys.

They wondered whether attachment was due to food or emotional comfort, so Harlow created two surrogate mothers: one of which that provided food and one of soft cloth for comfort.

The monkeys preferred the cloth mother, indicating emotional comfort is crucial in attachment.

What is attachment?

An emotional bond with another person (usually the main caregivers)

Who is Mary Ainsworth and what is the Strange Situation?

Ainsworth studied attachment in infants using the Strange Situation, a lab test where a baby experiences separations and reunions with a caregiver.

She identified attachment styles:

• Secure: upset when caregiver leaves, comforted when they return

• Insecure-avoidant: not very upset, avoids caregiver

• Insecure-resistant (ambivalent): very upset, not easily comforted

How does cognition develop in adolescence? 

Amygdala further developed than pre-frontal cortex. Leads to:

1) Egocentrism - The belief that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is (everyone is watching your every move) 

2) Sense of uniqueness (“no-one understands me” or they believe their problems are unique to only them) 

3) Sense of invincibility - risky behaviours (underdeveloped PFC but limbic system is further developed) 

What is Eirkson’s theory of psychosocial development?

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development outlines eight stages, each characterized by a conflict:

1) Trust vs. Mistrust
2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3) Initiative vs. Guilt
4) Industry vs. Inferiority
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation
8) Integrity vs. Despair

What is Marcia’s theory of psychosocial development?

Marcia’s theory (crisis (exploration) vs. commitment) 

• Low crisis, low commitment = Identity diffusion

• High crisis, low commitment = Identity moratorium

• Low crisis, high commitment = Identity foreclosure

• High crisis, high commitment = Identity achievement

What is emerging adulthood? 

1) Identity exploration

• Exploring especially in love and work 

2) Instability 

• Residential changes peak during emerging adulthood, during which there is also often instability in love, work, and education

3) Self-focus 

• Are self-focused in the sense that they have little in the way of obligations, etc.
  

4) Feeling “in-betweeen” 

What is adulthood? 

3 ranges: 

Early adulthood - 20-30’s 

• Peak physical condition - speed, coordination, etc

Middle adulthood - 30-50’s

• Fertility decreases in females 

• Females experience menopause - Triggered by a decline of estrogen - hot-flashes, mood swings, sleep disruption, loss of sex drive, loss of bone density, muscle mass

• Gradual decrease in sperm and testosterone production (quality of sperm gradually decreases as well) 

Late adulthood - 60’s-death

• Elective optimization with compensation - Older adults match their goals with their current abilities - Don’t expect to run at the same pace, etc. 

• Accumulated wear and tear, as well and lessened ability to repair and regenerate 

What causes Alzheimer’s, and how can you reduce the risk for it?

Affects: synapses (communication between neurons)

• Begins when amyloid beta builds up → forms plaques

• Microglia fail to clear waste (can become damaged when they are constantly active due to chronic inflammation)

• At a tipping point: tau forms tangles → synapse death

Preventative strategies:

• Quality Sleep: Slow-wave, deep sleep clears waste (glymphatic system)

• Heart health: Avoid chronic high BP, diabetes & obesity

• Neuroplasticity: Regular mental activity builds synapse “reserve”, creating a cushion for potential symptoms

How does cognition develop in adulthood? 

Early adulthood

• Idealism (ideals and dreams) gives way to realistic pragmatism (Practical consequences and results)

• Reflection on worldview 

Middle adulthood 

• Peak of intellectual functioning

Late adulthood

• Speed of processing generally declines 

• Memory retrieval skills decline 

• Wisdom increase in some individuals

• Physical activity can improve cognitive function 

How does Erikson’s last three stages underlie the socioemotional development of adults?

Intimacy vs. isolation (30s-40s) 

• Individuals either form intimate relationships with others or become socially isolated

Generativity vs. stagnation (40s-50s) 

• Attempting to make a contribution to the next generation 

• Lack of success at this stage is associated with the popular notion of a mid-life crisis

• Feeling that one has made a lasting and memorable contribution to the world is related to higher levels of psychological well-being. 

Integrity vs. despair (60s+) 

• Looking back and evaluation their lives and seeking meaning

• Reminiscence

• If individuals have a well-established sense of integrity, seeing their life as meaningful, they face the later years with a strong sense of meaning and low fear of death

What are the life-expectancy of Men vs. Women

In Canada:

• Men - 79 years

• Women -83 years