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What does it mean when we see media texts as “windows to the world”?
Literally (denotative) & figuratively(connotative), media plays a role in meaning-making
Image: ‘The Human Condition’, René Magritte, 1933
Media ‘texts’: as rhetoric/as a system of ‘signs’
All media have a rhetorical dimension (trying to persuade, convince, protest) but some media texts are designed primarily as rhetoric (e.g. ads, political campaigns, public service images), ex: Aristotle writes of the ‘art of rhetoric’. All media (images, sonics) are signifying systems: theories and methods of semiology/semiotics are ways of unpacking how media make meaning.
All media are ‘signs’; what are the elements in a media text?
Signifiers – the means by which the media text ‘ works’ e.g. imagery, associations & Signified - what the text is trying to say as a whole, and according to which associations
Media ‘texts’: as rhetoric/ as a system of ‘signs’: example
Billy Bronson, 2017, Tony Blair Has Raised £10million In Order To Fight Donald Trump And Brexit; https://www.sickchirpse.com/tony-blair-fight-donald-trump-and-brexit/
What do the signifiers and signified create in media?
The psychodynamics of meaning-making: ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’ create multidirectional rather than one-way interpretative processes of making, and taking meaning.
Image: The Treachery of Images’, René Magritte, 1929
How is “text” portrayed in media meaning-making?
The polysemy of visual cultures: ‘text’ (image, words, sound, hyperlinks) = rhetoric and semiotics combine
‘The rhetoric of images’ and their semiotics along global cultural circuits of (re)production - the case of Alan Kurdi
Above: Chinese artist, Ai Weiwei posing as Kurdi, 2016; https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/ai-weiwei-alan-kurdi-syria/index.html
Rhetoric of an image
What are “Associations” (connotations and denotations) in media?
They are interconnected with who is the subject, who is the object of the media text; and on who is looking. All these factors have influence on how scholars might analyze an image, or any other media text. They also influence how different people interpret, understand, or misunderstand a media text.
Associations – connotations and denotations: case study examples
Leshia Evans, protesting the shooting death of Alton Sterling is detained by law enforcement, Baton Rouge, LA, on July 9, 2016. Credit: Jonathan Bachman/REUTERS; https://lirp.cdn-website.com/2eff8696/dms3rep/multi/opt/black-lives-matter-protestor-zoom-896436b9-e3cd-4957-b5f7-5ec1a2692821-4754da17-960w.jpg
Tank Man’’, Tiananmen Square, June 5th 1989. Photo by Jeff Widener/AP, still from cnn footage ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YeFzeNAHEhU
CNN story of the photographer;
https://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2019/05/world/tiananmen-square-tank-man-cnnphotos/
Image on the right: Photo, Huynh Cong ("Nick") Ut/AP, of Phan Thi Kim Phuc (9 yrs old) after being napalm burned, Vietnam 1972, Pulitzer Prize
What associations could viewers from different ages, backgrounds, political persuasions make about the iconography of social movements and their critics (#BLM, Just Stop Oil, White Lives Matter) ?
Different viewers from various ages, backgrounds, and political persuasions could interpret the iconography of social movements and their critics in diverse ways. Here are some potential associations they might make:
#BLM (Black Lives Matter):
Supporters: They might see symbols such as raised fists, the Black Power salute, or the phrase "Black Lives Matter" itself as representations of empowerment, justice, and equality. They could associate these symbols with the ongoing struggle against systemic racism and police brutality.
Critics: Some critics may view these symbols as divisive or threatening. They might associate them with violence, anti-police sentiments, or the exclusion of other racial groups. They could interpret the movement as promoting identity politics or fueling social unrest.
Just Stop Oil (Environmental Movement):
Supporters: They may interpret symbols like green energy icons, images of renewable resources, or slogans advocating for climate action as representations of environmental sustainability and responsibility. They might associate these symbols with efforts to combat climate change and protect the planet.
Critics: Critics might view these symbols as anti-business or anti-progress. They may associate them with economic downturns, job losses in traditional industries, or burdensome regulations. They could perceive the movement as prioritizing environmental concerns over human welfare or economic growth.
White Lives Matter:
Supporters: Individuals who align with this movement might see symbols such as the phrase "White Lives Matter," images of national flags, or symbols associated with European heritage as representations of cultural pride and protection of white identity. They could associate these symbols with concerns about perceived threats to white culture or demographics.
Critics: Critics might interpret these symbols as expressions of white supremacy or racial superiority. They could associate them with hate groups, xenophobia, or efforts to undermine the progress of civil rights movements. They may see the movement as an attempt to delegitimize or counteract the struggles of marginalized communities.
Power of iconic images - case studies
“A spectre is haunting the UK. The spectre of fascism”* @JFCrisp
“Just Stop Oil” activitsts
What did Stuart Hall state about “Between the literal and the figurative lies meaning-in-the-making”?
“… how things are represented and the ‘machineries’ and regimes of representation in a culture do play a constitutive, and not merely a reflexive, after-the-event role. …This gives questions of culture and ideology, and the scenarios of representation – subjectivity, identity, politics – a formative and not merely an expressive place in the constitution of social and political life.”
How do “Connotations” work in media meaning-making?
Connotations work as associations – circumstantial, psychodynamic, and by design.
Examples:
Brexit Campaign Poster from UK Independence Party (UKIP) 2016 (as seen on image)
Photos of prisoner abuse by US military personnel in Abu Ghraib prison, Iraq go ‘viral’ after mobile phone images are aired on CNN in 2004; https://www.britannica.com/topic/Abu-Ghraib-prison
(in this case, they then become ‘repurposed’ and recirculated on the web as a form of ‘adbusting’ protests through ‘subvertising’ (anti-ads) - associations depend on knowledge of wider contexts in which an image works, or is put to work) —> used in Apple iPod campaign, 2004-2008
Beyoncé, Renaissance album cover , 2022 (pictured on a glass stallion (viz. A “tall, strong, beautiful woman in rap/hip hop), after (below) painting oif Lady Godiva, John Collier (1897)
Johnson Long on meaning-making on media (narrative)
“[M]eaning-making is a social process, rather than a matter of individual whim” (Long, Johnson et al 2022: 106)
Narrative refers to the organization of textual elements into a pattern in terms of space, time, and perspective” (Long, Johnson et al 2022: 100). For film analysis a narrative includes:
Story is “a pattern that film spectators create through assumptions and inferences; we do not see the story on the screen or hear it on the soundtrack” (Long et al 2022: 105)
Plot is “the actual presentation of the [story] .. It arranges elements – the story events – according to certain principles … narrative logic, … time, … space” (Long et al 2022: 106-108)
Point of view
Case studies on genre-crossing
Asian Dub Foundation: ‘Fortress Europe’ (2003);
News genre “transgressions”
Media transgression refers to the violation or crossing of established norms, boundaries, or expectations within media content. It involves challenging or subverting conventional standards, values, or regulations through creative expression, storytelling, or representation.
Media transgression can take various forms across different media platforms and genres. It may involve controversial or taboo subjects, provocative imagery, unconventional storytelling techniques, or the portrayal of marginalized perspectives. By pushing the boundaries of acceptability and challenging societal norms, media transgression can provoke thought, spark debate, and disrupt the status quo.
Zondag met Lubach (NL): “America First – the Netherlands Second – Donald Trump” (2017); https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELD2AwFN9Nc
The Daily Show (US) – “Trevor Noah on Trump’s Classified Documents Saga” (2023); https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Pt6rjzwMlY
Cinematic boundary-hopping case studies
Black Panther (2018) – American race politics, superheroes and the Marvel Comics franchise; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hg4h_f4Hj4k
Cowboys and Aliens (2011) – Mixing opposing genres with a shared storyline - Opening scene/establishing shot; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzCO-iyGcLU&list=PLQdy-vpwaP5BsED43-K_DGsMkXCRA9M-T (Chatman; 129)
Media words/images/sonics as polysemic carriers of meaning/s: case studies
•Gil Scott-Heron, 1971, ‘The Revolution Will Not Be Televised’ (Jazz setting); https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QnJFhuOWgXg
•Gil Scott-Heron, 1970, with video cues for new listeners; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BS3QOtbW4m0
•Terre Thaemlitz, ‘The Revolution Will Not Be Injected; (To be read to Gil Scott-Heron's "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised"). First published on Comatonse Recordings (www.comatonse.com), June 19, 2015. Notes starting with’“Comment ...” (e. g. Comment 1, Comment 2, Comment 3, etc.) were written specifically for the book Nuisance: Writings on Identity Jamming & Digital Audio Production (Austria: Zaglossus, 2015) https://doczz.net/doc/8171262/the-revolution-will-not-be-injected - read it out loud..
What can media texts be analyzed as?
Genres (types)
Narratives (the structures and signifying systems that generate stories and story-telling)
Can the Western genre be able to break out of and transform the (outdated) genre? If so, how?
The Western genre can break out of its traditional mold and transform by:
Embracing diverse perspectives, including those of marginalized groups.
Challenging traditional Western myths through a revisionist approach.
Addressing contemporary issues such as environmentalism and immigration.
Experimenting with genre hybridity to attract new audiences.
Prioritizing character-driven narratives that explore universal themes.
What are some of the ways we can analyze film scenes?
Consider some selected scenes:
their narrative ‘logic’ (as far as scene allows)
How they represent, or imply time (events, memories, relationships)
How they convey space
Whose Point of View is at stake
Example:
Selected Scenes from 1969 and 2010 film versions of True Grit
In the recent remake, they cut off the line of “you’re enjoying this too much” in the ‘spanking’ scene as the new remake’s portrayal of the man’s more caring attitude towards what happened to the woman, leaving out sexual remarks
Reflections from scenes in True Grit (1969), Godless (2017), The English (2022): narrative logic
The English is billed as a “revisionist” Western; Godless focuses on a town run by primarily women;
True Grit has as its central character a young girl and has two versions 40 years apart
All have “goodies” and “baddies”, heroes and villains but their characterizations and castings shift
Two depict, imply, or revisit American-Mexican/American-Indigenous encounters, mining/railways opening up the American West but also its closure, and enclosure of Native American land
Two deal with other European immigrants – English, Scandinavian: One with class, two with cross-cultural relationships (‘inter-racial’ in American terms), one with age/gender
All have Native American characters, some Black characters, only one features a Black community, only one has a Native American as a main character, few Hispanic roles
All depict, reinforce but also trouble sex-gender stereotypes, alternative femininities and masculinities/sexuality: In the script, sub-text/innuendos, explicitly through the female characters
A genre that “romanticizes” the White Settler Western story yet still has drawing power; Cast of Godless discussing this, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zimeJ65qdXc
Implications for media theory & research into genres and (their) narratives
Genres (such as Western) can diversify geocultural, historical, and representational dimensions along race, gender, class lines
Case studies of cultural diversified genre and representational dimensions
‘Bollywood’ cowboy movies along with ‘Spaghetti westerns’ of Sergio Leone et al in 1970’s
Settler New Zealand:
Power of the Dog (2021) – written/directed by Jane Campion
Settler Australia:
The Proposition (2005) – written by Nic Cave/directed by John Hillcoat
Sweet Country (2017) – Dir. Warwick Thornton/starring Walpiri man, Hamilton Morris
The Drover’s Wife (2021)- written/directed/starring Leah Purcell
Examples of “Black Western”
Blazing Saddles (1974) – a satirical comedy directed by Mel Brooks, starring Cleavon Little (Richard Pryor co-wrote screenplay)
The Hateful Eight (2015) – Dir. Quentin Tarantino, starring Samuel L. Jackson
The Harder They Fall (2021) – Dir. Jaymes Samuel, starring Idris Elba, Zazie Beets, Regina King and many more; Soundtrack integral to the narrative;
See Winne Barnes (2022) “19 Black Western Movies that’ll have you drawing from the hip”; https://www.thatsister.com/black-western-movies/
Is the Western worth saving or is it an “exhausted” genre with a politically suspect narrative structure?
“At its best the Western allows us to escape the reality of who we are and how we live today. Something about its huge landscapes, mythic heroes and villains, the epic violence and love they pursue, can speak directly to our souls ”
-Hugo Blick
“Each medium has its own properties, for better and worse usage, and intelligent film viewing and criticism, like intelligent reading, needs to understand and respect both the limitations these create and also the triumphs they invite”
-Chatman
What does “Representation” mean?
Representation: a textbook definition
“Representation is to describe or depict something, to call it up in the mind by description, portrayal or imagination. To represent also means to symbolize, to stand for, to be a specimen of or to substitute for.” (Long, Johnson, MacDonald, Bader, and Wall 2022: 121)
How do humans, institutional, techno-economic actors engage in representation?
draw equivalences, correspondences between groups/events – empirically or ‘semiotically’ (e.g. “the war in Ukraine is our (Europe’s) ‘9/11’” (Ursula von der Leyen, President of the European Commission)
act as a proxy or substitute for something/someone else (elected representative)
regard others as epitomizing certain attributes (e.g. narrative archetypes, gender stereotypes)
work on their own, or others’ (self) representation online (selfies, hashtag actions)
How are the study of media representations and politics (power struggles) interconnected?
Media texts and how they work as representation are intertwined domains. One domain does not exist without the other.
“While [de-Westernized patterns of cultural production, circulation and consumption [have]] given rise to de-Americanized patterns of media culture productions and consumption and has considerably facilitated mutual understanding among people in the region, it is still debatable whether and how these developments fundamentally challenge uneven media cultural globalization, what sort of cross-border dialogues are promoted, and whether and how they encourage socio-culturally marginalized voices expressed, heard and shared in a mediated public space.” (Iwabuchi 2010: 198)
Ramón, Tran, and Hunt on diversity
‘The word “diversity” does and should encompass so much more than a few underrepresented identities. For example, age, sexual orientation, and religion are also important dimensions of identity invoked by the concept of diversity. … Some of the identity information is not visible nor accessible and necessarily verifiable unless the person has stated it publicly.’ (Ramón, Tran, and Hunt 2023: 9)
Example case study: ‘Straattaal’ (Street Talk), by Nina (Album: De Lastigste 2007)
Stuart Hall on representation and the literal and the figurative dimensions to meaning-making
“… while not wanting to expand the discursive infinitely, how things are represented and the ‘machineries’ and regimes of representation in a culture do play a constitutive, and not merely a reflexive, after-the-event role. …This gives questions of culture and ideology, and the scenarios of representation – subjectivity, identity, politics – a formative and not merely an expressive, place in the constitution of social and political life.”
How can we determine who is representing whom, when, and in what context integral elements to all studies of media and/as representation?
How to measure (method)
Truth, fairness, accuracy
Legal-moral judgements (right, wrongs)
Political-economic implications
Socio-cultural affiliations (values)
Historical legacies: e.g. Empire, colonialism
Case studies of cultural representation
Image: Advertisement for travelling ‘circus’, Berlin (1901)
“Screems from Da Old Plantation” (2000): King Kapisi
Lyrics: https://genius.com/King-kapisi-screams-from-da-old-plantation-lyrics
Sione’s Wedding (2006): Dir. Chris Graham
My Wedding and Other Secrets (2011): Dir. Roseanne Liang
Provide examples of how genre remains the same yet shifts as it is reproduced
The Roald Dahl Controversy
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
→ Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Oompa-Loompas
→ Oompa-Loompas being “imported” from a “terrible country” with jungles and beasts
→ Presenting Willy Wonka as the civilized character
→ Tim Burton’s Charlie and the Chocolate Factory vs. Wonka (in Wonka, Hugh Grant plays the Oompa-Loompa to be more representative but not necessarily challenged; Grant re-producing the Oompa-Loompa as part of upper British society)
→ “Words Matter” (publisher (Puffin) notice in recent Roald Dahl editions) → redacting different parts of Roald Dahl writings such as language related to weight, mental health, violence, gender, race to be removed or paraphrased
→ Words are never innocent
Reasons to be skeptical on representation
As Ramón, Tran, and Hunt conclude; ‘More widely dispersing the power that has traditionally been wielded by the few is a daunting but necessary task. The industry status quo has been to respond to periodic pressure for more inclusion by providing access for only a select few, thereby preserving business as usual.’
Case studies for counter-hegemonic narratives
‘B-Movie’ (1981), Gil Scott-Heron : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6JvpNY1QHzs ”I remember what I said about ‘Ray-Gun/Acted like an actor/Holly-Weird/ Acted like a Liberal/Acted like General Franco when he acted like Governor of California/Then he acted like a Republican/Then he acted like somebody was going to vote for him as president …”
‘Don’t Believe the Hype’ (1988) Public Enemy - “some say I never heard of ya/rap burglar, false media/we don’t need it do we?” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vQaVIoEjOM
“The Color Purple” (1982) : “tells the story of a poor, young, uneducated African-American girl named Celie who lives in rural Georgia in the early 1900s. Over the course of the novel, Celie encounters racism, sexism, abuse, and challenges to her own sexuality. … Walker’s novel has been criticized for including controversial material such as homosexuality, violence, explicit language. Despite the numerous attempts to ban The Color Purple, it continues to find its way onto the shelves of interested readers.”
What is ‘POWER’ in a multidimensional concept?
‘Power is the name applied to that which structures culture, politics and economics. Power has many forms and there are many theories of power, but each draws its relevance from the sense that power names the things that determine how a life may be lived.’ (Jordan 1999: 1)
Three definitional rubrics of power (following Jordan)
Power over something/somebody (materialist i.e. as possession, common sense understanding)
Part of the social order of things (structuralist- constructivist, e.g. Barnes as cited in Jordan)
Power as a force of domination – and resistance (structure-agency dynamics, e.g. Foucault)
Power at the intersection of gender, race, and class
2024 International Women’s Day
We have to talk about liberating minds as well as liberating society. (Angela Davis in Hutton 2902; https://www.anothermag.com/design-living/12607/angela-davis-quotes-on-freedom-juneteenth-black-lives-matter-movement )
Power corresponds to the human ability not just to act but to act in concert. Power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group and remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together.” (Hannah Arendt, On Violence, 1970: p. 50)
‘All political institutions are manifestations and materializations of power; they petrify and decay as soon as the living power of the people ceases to uphold them.” (H. Arendt, Crises of the Republic: Lying in Politics; Civil Disobedience; On Violence; Thoughts on Politics and Revolution, 1972: 150)
Two influential statements about power – and its relationship to media
“What comes to pass does so not so much because a few people want it to happen, as because the mass of citizens abdicate their responsibility and let things be.” (Antonio Gramsci on how hegemony works)
“We must cease once and for all to describe the effects of power in negative terms, it 'excludes', it 'represses'... in fact power produces, it produces reality, it produces domains of objects and rituals of truth.” (Michel Foucault on how describing power is not the same as defining, or observing how it operates in practice)
Infrastructural Power
In essence, infrastructural power stems from the control or ownership of critical infrastructure that is indispensable for the functioning of modern societies. This control enables entities, whether governmental, corporate, or otherwise, to shape the behavior, access, and opportunities of individuals and communities. Examples of infrastructural power can include control over transportation networks (such as roads, railways, and ports), communication networks (such as internet and telecommunications infrastructure), energy production and distribution systems (such as power plants and grids), and information systems (such as media and internet platforms).
Platform Power
‘The geopolitics of platform infrastructures informs the ways in which power is distributed, not just market power but also state power. … [Platforms are] ‘programmable architecture[s] designed to organize interactions between users (van Dijck et al 2018: 9)
Cyberpower
“With the emergence of cyberspace, the virtual becomes counterposed to the real. The physical exists in cyberspace but is reinvented. Virtuality is the general term for this reinvention of familiar physical space in cyberspace. … Cyberpower [can be broken down into three distinct levels: the individual, the social and the imaginary. ’ (Jordan 1999: 1, 5)
Michel Foucault on power as co-constitutive of social orders
“We should not be content to say that power has a need for such-and-such a discovery, such-and-such a form of knowledge, but we should add that the exercise of power itself creates and causes to emerge new objects of knowledge and accumulates new bodies of information ... The exercise of power perpetually creates knowledge and, conversely, knowledge constantly induces effects of power ... It is not possible for power to be exercised without knowledge, it is impossible for knowledge not to engender power.”
Does the media reflect and circulate power relations that exist in ‘real life’ ?
Here's how the media reflects and circulates power relations:
Representation: Media representations often reflect dominant power structures by portraying certain groups, such as those in positions of authority or privilege, more frequently and favorably than others. For example, news coverage may disproportionately focus on political leaders, business elites, or celebrities, reinforcing their influence and status.
Agenda Setting: Media outlets can influence public discourse and priorities by setting the agenda for what topics and issues are considered important or worthy of attention. This agenda-setting power can reflect the interests and perspectives of those who control the media, amplifying certain voices while marginalizing others.
Gatekeeping: Media gatekeepers, such as editors and producers, play a role in determining which stories are covered and how they are framed. This gatekeeping power can shape public perceptions by controlling the flow of information and controlling narratives, thereby reinforcing existing power structures.
Stereotyping and Bias: Media representations often rely on stereotypes and biases that reflect and perpetuate existing power relations. For example, marginalized groups may be depicted in ways that reinforce negative stereotypes or limit their agency, while dominant groups may be portrayed more positively or sympathetically.
Ownership and Control: Media ownership and control are concentrated in the hands of a relatively small number of corporations and individuals, who often have their own vested interests and agendas. This concentration of media ownership can shape the content and messaging of media outlets, reinforcing existing power relations and limiting diversity of perspectives.
Does the media co-constitute power relations (top-down, bottom-up) as they circulate?
Top-Down Influence: Media outlets often disseminate information and narratives that reflect the interests and perspectives of those in positions of power, such as political leaders, corporate executives, and influential individuals. This top-down influence shapes public discourse, sets agendas, and reinforces existing power structures. For example, media coverage may amplify the voices and priorities of elites while marginalizing dissenting or alternative viewpoints.
Bottom-Up Influence: At the same time, the media can also be influenced by grassroots movements, social activism, and public opinion. Through social media, citizen journalism, and grassroots organizing, ordinary people have the ability to challenge dominant narratives, hold power-holders accountable, and shape public discourse. This bottom-up influence can disrupt established power dynamics, raise awareness about social issues, and mobilize collective action.
Feedback Loop: The interaction between top-down and bottom-up influences creates a feedback loop in which power relations are both reproduced and contested. Media representations and narratives shape public perceptions and attitudes, which in turn influence social norms, political decisions, and institutional practices. However, public responses to media content can also challenge and reshape dominant narratives, leading to shifts in power dynamics over time.
Negotiation and Contestation: Power relations within the media are constantly negotiated and contested through struggles over representation, access, and control. Actors with different interests and agendas, including media producers, consumers, activists, and policymakers, engage in ongoing debates and conflicts over the meaning and significance of media content. These struggles can result in changes to media practices, policies, and representations, reflecting shifting power dynamics within society.
Does the media perpetuate power relations through images, sound, frequency, volume?
Images: Visual representations in the media can perpetuate power relations by reinforcing stereotypes, biases, and hierarchies. For example, images that consistently depict certain groups in subordinate or marginalized positions can reinforce existing power dynamics by shaping public perceptions and attitudes. Similarly, images that portray individuals in positions of authority or privilege can reinforce the legitimacy of their power.
Sound: Sound in media, including music, dialogue, and sound effects, can also influence power relations by evoking emotional responses, setting the tone, and conveying meaning. For example, dramatic music or authoritative voices can enhance the perceived credibility or authority of certain messages, while softer or marginalized voices may be overlooked or dismissed.
Frequency: The frequency with which certain messages, narratives, or images are repeated in the media can reinforce power relations by normalizing particular perspectives or marginalizing alternative viewpoints. For example, media coverage that consistently focuses on the perspectives of political elites or corporate interests can marginalize the voices of marginalized communities or grassroots movements, reinforcing existing power structures.
Volume: The volume or intensity of media coverage can also perpetuate power relations by amplifying certain voices or issues while silencing others. For example, media outlets with greater resources or reach may dominate public discourse, drowning out dissenting voices or alternative narratives. Similarly, sensationalized or dramatic coverage of certain events or issues may overshadow more nuanced or complex discussions, reinforcing simplistic or polarized views.
Does the media re-constitute power relations through remixes, ‘fake news’, satire, stereotypes counter-narratives?
The media's use of remixes, "fake news," satire, stereotypes, and counter-narratives can re-constitute power relations by challenging dominant narratives, amplifying marginalized voices, and offering alternative perspectives on social and political issues. By critically engaging with media content, audiences can interrogate power dynamics, challenge dominant narratives, and promote social change.
How does ownership and control of media (outlets, genres, transmission) impact on the exercising of ‘media power’?
Ownership and control of media outlets, genres, and transmission channels play a crucial role in the exercise of media power. By shaping editorial decisions, controlling access to platforms, influencing content production, and monopolizing transmission infrastructure, media owners can influence public discourse, shape public perceptions, and reinforce existing power dynamics within society.
What is Adorno’s standpoint on media?
Adorno was a heavy critique on the modern music industry such as the radio
The considered “new media” in the 1930s are significantly different from “new media” now, mass media already existed a long time ago but changes keep happening throughout the decades; the idea of the cinema as an art medium is a relatively new concept
Media is adapting within the ideological regimes of (Adorno’s) time, leading to unsettling conclusions about the political landscape; media is acclimatizing to political changes
Media’s (such as the cinema) ability to distract people from political issues
Other similar thinkers such as Adorno
Walter Benjamin
Implications of reproducing art mechanically
Marx Horkheimer
Book on the culture industry: new media products as a byproduct of social waste; are there to be consumed and wasted out, boosting capitalism; media as a sake of consumption, having demands
Industry vs. culture vs. “the masses”
Mass culture does not come from the masses: the “mass culture” (popular culture) has nothing to do with with the masses or everyday cultural productions; it is created from the top-down; corporations owning media products for us to consume (industrial media that are handed to us); leaves us coming back for more
The customer is “Manufactured” to be addicted (ie. keep listening to radio advertisements, coming back to cinemas, buying records, etc)
Creating “easily-digestible” media to foster addiction, even though the culture industry could “scarcely exist without adapting to the masses”
Successful media franchise are able to keep the masses coming back for more stories
Quality vs. Commodity
Cultural industries cannot make perfect pieces of art everytime, they make something good enough just for people to consume
Providing commodities for consumption rather than quality artworks for contemplation
You could argue that even high forms of art (Shakespeare, museums, etc) charge for consumption. However, now cultural products is created not for contemplating but just for consumption
The products of the culture industry become their own advertisements: for example paying cheap subscription to consume films from streaming platforms, entertainment embedded with advertisements to keep selling, Oscars is a form of capitalism and not art, Apple selling storage to help you keep meaningful images
Artistry & “Auras”
Artistry and artistic technique are streamlined to fit within the industrial means of production and consumption (ie. level of artistry just has to be good enough for people to keep subscribing); ignoring the artistic meaning behind artwork; art is no longer challenging the system but is a part of the system
What is the “aura” according to Adorno?
The aura of the artwork has changed, now becoming a “sick cloud”, the “foggy mist” that distracts you to keep consuming // mass production of art diminishes the “aura” that the artwork brings, ie. we had to go to Paris to see the Mona Llisa, but with photography, infinite copies and versions of it are made → we’ve lost the aura of it
Ideology & Capitalism & Society
The culture industry now dumbs us down, simplifying grand artworks
What is Intermediality?
"Intermediality," as discussed by Theodor Adorno, refers to the relationships and interactions between different forms of media and artistic expression. Adorno, a critical theorist associated with the Frankfurt School, explored the ways in which various media forms intersect and influence each other within contemporary culture.
For Adorno, intermediality reflects the interconnectedness of modern media and the blurring of boundaries between traditional artistic disciplines. He observed how mass media, such as radio, television, film, and advertising, increasingly shape and inform cultural production, influencing the content and aesthetics of various art forms.
Combine Adorno’s viewpoint with films and pop culture
Combining Adorno's viewpoint with films and pop culture involves critically examining how mainstream media products reflect and perpetuate the cultural and economic conditions of capitalist society. While Adorno was highly critical of mass culture and the culture industry, he also recognized the potential for resistance and critical engagement within popular culture. Analyzing films and pop culture through an Adornian lens can help uncover the ways in which dominant ideologies, consumerism, and social control are embedded within mainstream media products, while also exploring possibilities for subversion, critique, and alternative cultural expressions.
eg.: adaptations of Romeo and Juliet and West Side Story
Ethos, Pathos, Logos in rhetorics
What role does culture play in the way we interpret images?
Culture serves as a lens through which we perceive and make meaning of images, influencing our understanding, interpretation, and emotional response to visual stimuli. Recognizing the cultural context and implications of images is essential for fostering cross-cultural understanding, critical thinking, and effective communication in a diverse and interconnected world.
How does representation relate to "semiotics"?
Representation is closely related to semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their meanings in communication. Semiotics examines how signs, which include words, images, sounds, gestures, and objects, convey meaning within cultural contexts. Representation, in this context, refers to the process by which signs and symbols stand in for or represent something else, such as ideas, concepts, or objects.
Representation and semiotics are closely intertwined, as both involve the study of signs and symbols and their role in communication, meaning-making, and cultural expression. Semiotics provides a theoretical framework for understanding how representations function within social and cultural contexts, shedding light on the complex processes of communication and interpretation.
How can we relate ideas of power to the platform society? Who should be responsible?
The concept of power is deeply intertwined with the platform society, which refers to the dominant role that digital platforms, such as social media, search engines, and online marketplaces, play in shaping various aspects of contemporary life.
Navigating power dynamics within the platform society requires a multi-stakeholder approach that addresses the complex interplay of technological, economic, social, and political factors. By promoting responsible platform governance, fostering digital literacy, and empowering users, we can work towards a platform society that promotes equity, justice, and democratic values.
How would Adorno comment on platform society?
He would likely criticize how digital platforms, like social media and online marketplaces, contribute to turning culture into products for profit. He would be concerned about how these platforms reinforce mainstream beliefs and inequalities, control the flow of information, and commodify human interactions. Adorno might worry that algorithms and targeted content limit people's exposure to diverse viewpoints and encourage passive consumption (standardization). However, he might also see potential for people to resist and challenge these trends by promoting alternatives that prioritize autonomy, privacy, and democratic participation.
Who is or should be responsible for anchoring public values in societies that are increasingly organized through online systems? How have power relations changed?
Power relations in societies organized through online systems have become more complex and decentralized, with multiple actors exerting influence over public discourse and values. Ensuring that public values are anchored in the digital realm requires collaboration and collective action among governments, technology companies, civil society organizations, and individual users. By fostering dialogue, accountability, and transparency, stakeholders can work together to create a digital environment that upholds democratic principles, protects human rights, and promotes the public good.
How can we connect ideas of culture and mass to propaganda and ideology?
Culture and mass media play integral roles in the dissemination and reinforcement of propaganda and ideology within society. Mass media and cultural products serve as powerful tools for shaping public perceptions, disseminating dominant ideologies, and manufacturing consent for specific agendas. However, they also provide opportunities for resistance and counter-hegemonic culture, allowing for the expression of dissenting voices and alternative perspectives.
Rhetorically analysing photography
Representational: visual content such as subject, symbols, settings, actions, people
Interpersonal: relationship between viewers, the image and the subjects in them, ie. Perspective, social distance, visual gaze — whatthe viewers are experiencing
Compositional: layout of the image (lines, focal points, saliance)
Interpretive: combining all contexts to the eventual point or meaning of the image
Adorno’s “Standardization” theory
This theory maintains that, in capitalist society, popular culture (and, by extension, popular music) is standardized, using the same formula to appeal to the masses. Adorno noted that all popular music contained a verse, chorus and bridge, and that these elements were interchangeable without damaging the song. However, this formula did not apply to “serious music”, saying that “every detail derives its musical sense from the concrete totality of the piece“, and arguing that even if one detail is omitted “all is lost”
Icons & Symbols
An icon is a simple image that represents a real thing. For example, a shopping cart icon.
A symbol is a simple image whose meaning must be learned. For example, most traffic signage is made of symbols. A “no parking” sign with a P crossed out with red needs to be learned to be understood.
![<p><span>Media texts and how they work as </span><em><span>representation</span></em><span> are intertwined domains. One domain does not exist without the other.</span></p><p></p><p><span>“While [de-Westernized patterns of cultural production, circulation and consumption [have]] given rise to de-Americanized patterns of media culture productions and consumption and has considerably facilitated mutual understanding among people in the region, it is still debatable whether and how these developments fundamentally challenge uneven media cultural globalization, what sort of cross-border dialogues are promoted, and whether and how they encourage socio-culturally marginalized voices expressed, heard and shared in a mediated public space.” (Iwabuchi 2010: 198)</span></p>](https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/bd3a3bac-1293-4951-a0fd-1d985ed6eee1.jpeg)
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