Sociology Final

Sociological Imagination

The capacity to consider how people’s lives— including our own—are shaped by the social facts that surround us

Quantitative research method

tools of sociological inquiry that involve examining numerical data with mathematics — Closed ended questions, larger scale

Qualitative research method

tools of sociological inquiry that involve careful consideration and discussion of the meaning of nonnumerical data — Open ended questions and smaller scale

Examples of Qualitative research methods

Interviews, ethnography, focus groups, content analysis

Examples of Quantitative research methods

Survey analysis, audit studies 

Socialization

the lifelong learning process by which we become members of our cultures  

Formal Norms

written down, backed by institution; laws, etc. Receive a formal sanction

Informal Norms

things that are learned/taught to do; Rules of etiquette that are unwritten. Receive informal sanctions. Ex. Raise your hand in class

Formal sanctions

official punishment given by an organization. NFL dishing out fines, etc. 

Informal sanctions

side eye, judgement from others, jokes about behavior, rude gestures towards behavior, etc. Making noise in the library

Social Construction

the process by which we layer objects with ideas, fold concepts into one another, and build connections between them  

Functionalism

this theoretical perspective focuses on how societies work, with a focus on solidarity, stability, and equilibrium within societies

Conflict Theory

the theory that societies aren’t characterized by shared interests but competing ones. Focuses on power, exploitation, and inequality

Symbolic Interactionism

this theoretical perspective is a micro level approach, meaning they focus on individual interactions, meanings, and interpretations that shape how society looks and is experienced

Organizations

Formal entities that coordinate collections of people in achieving a stated purpose. 

Examples of Organizations

Alma college, MyMichigan medical center, NFL, NBA, YMCA, etc.

Institutions

Widespread and enduring patterns of interaction with which we respond to categories of human need

Examples of Institutions

Education, health, law, military, government, family, religion, etc. 

Structure

The set of interlocking social institutions in which we live. Multiple social institutions intersect with each other and together they create a structure for our lives. 

Structure v. agency

Ex. Choice of sport, options if struggling in a course 

Structural position

The features of our lives that determine our mix of opportunities and constraints

Stratification

A persistent sorting of social groups into enduring hierarchies; systematic inequalities among individuals and groups in society based on ranking with respect to class, status, power. 

Health disparities

Preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by populations that have been disadvantaged by their social or economic status, geographic location, and environment 

Health disparities by Race

variation in income, quality of health care, stereotypes, structural racism, implicit bias, chronic conditions shaped by exposure to discrimination and stigma 

Health disparities by Class

access to resources that facilitate healthy lifestyle, stress and relative disadvantage, higher SES individuals can take advantage of resources of knowledge, money, power, or networks to improve their health

Health disparities by Place

differences in mobility, mortality, and well-being across areas of the country, in some state's life expectancy varies by as much as 7 years, rural difficulties, demographic shifts into cities in which there is a lack of infrastructure

Manifest function

conscious manifestations

Latent function

unintended consequences; Could also be unique advantages; function not limited to conscious intentions/purpose; arguably more important

Example of Manifest functions in Education

gain knowledge, prepare for a career

Example of Latent functions in Education

make friendships, handle responsibilities, teach norms, establish identity, socialization, etc.

Aging Population

The population is aging, poverty is increasing for adults aged 65 and older, higher divorce rates for those 65+, rise in numbers lead to pulls on infrastructure such as home care, SSA/Medicare, and available workforce

Economic capital

financial resources that are or can be converted into money 

Social capital

The number of people we know and the resources they can offer us 

Cultural capital

symbolic resources that communicate one’s social status 

Symbolic capital

Capital based on reputation or renown 

Wealth

total assets – debt; ex. Net worth

Income

what someone earns for work done over a particular time interval. Translates into wealth; Ex. Salaries or hourly wages

Mean

measures a population’s income by including everyone in the math. This means people doing super well at the top may give the impression that average Americans are doing better than they actually are.

Median

describes the middle number out of everyone in the selected population, meaning it may give a better representation if you have large numbers skewing the results

Three measures of socioeconomic status

Income, Education, Occupation

3 measures - Income

exact number of annual earnings; does not capture wealth (accumulated resources), which varies significantly across groups 

3 measures - Education

number of completed years of schooling or highest degree earned; does not capture quality of schooling

3 measures - Occupation

where someone works and what they do for a living. Does not capture unemployment or work-related benefits 

Social mobility

opportunity to move up or down in the economic hierarchy

Economic Inequality

unequal distribution of resources, wealth, and opportunities among individuals or groups within a society. 

gini coefficient

measure of income or wealth inequality within a population. It ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality). A higher Gini coefficient indicates greater inequality.

Growth in inequality

increase in economic inequality. Factors contributing to this growth include globalization, technological advancements, and changes in economic policies

Correlation with other negative social outcomes

High levels of economic inequality are often associated with various negative social outcomes, including lower social mobility, increased crime rates, poorer health outcomes, and diminished overall societal well-being. There's a correlation between economic inequality and these negative social factors

Karl Marx

origin of conflict theory, critic of capitalism

Proletariat

a class of people who are employed by others and work for a wage

Bourgeoisie

a class of people who employ the workers  

Means of production

Things that are necessary in order to create wealth 

Examples of means of production

tools, machinery, workers, etc.

Marx’s Prediction for the future

capitalism will destroy itself. It will turn more and more people into proletariat and concentrate them in cities. It depends on cheap labor, cheap resources, and new markets, which will eventually be exhausted.  The bourgeoisie’s inevitable fall and the victory of the proletariat.

Alienation

the feeling of dissatisfaction and disconnection from the fruits of one’s labor 

4 types of alienation

alienation caused by the product, the process, others, and themselves/human nature 

“Shrinking” of middle class

smaller number of people in middle class. More in upper- and lower-income categories 

“Squeezing” of middle class

More difficulty of those in the middle to afford things considered “pillars of middle class” life and security. Ex. Housing, college, health care, childcare, retirement savings

Factors affecting middle class

Widening wealth inequality, loosening connection between economic growth and wage growth, growth of globalization;

Wage stagnation for lower and middle class while growth for upper income jobs. Inflation, change in prevalence of unions, decoupling of increases in production and worker’s wages 

Heteronormativity

Promoting heterosexuality as the only or preferred sexual identity, making other sexual identities invisible or casting them as inferior

Examples of sociological/social anxieties  

isolation, violence, racism, death, lack of control, environmental issues, visible or invisible, etc.

Collective nightmares

moral decay, concerns about the future, anxiety about outgroup members, and spiritual unknowns

White flight

a phenomenon in which White people start to leave a neighborhood when minority residents begin to move in 

Adultification

A form of bias in which adult characteristics are attributed to children  

Cumulative advantages and disadvantages

advantages and disadvantages that build over the life course. 

Intergenerational advantages and disadvantages

advantage and disadvantage that is passed from parent to children.”  

Social construction of race

Based on socially recognized, superficial physical traits, meanings we give to social categories of race vary based on culture and historical products, and are often developed to allocate power/resources differently in society

Example of how race is socially constructed

court rulings decided race throughout history

Mass incarceration

an extremely high rate of imprisonment in cross-cultural and historical perspective 

Shape/timing of trends in incarceration 

Seen as solution of crime control 

Factors shaping increase 

Increasing policing and arrest rates in low income and marginalized spaces 

Racial disparities 

Black people are 13% of population, 33% of incarcerated population 

Role of war on drugs  

Every year from 1980 to 2008 black people were arrested on drug charges at rates ranging from 2.8 to 5.5 times higher than white people 

More often drug charges were for possession rather than intent to sell 

Example of policies 

Sending substance abusers into treatment instead of prison, states revising mandatory minimums 

Factors shaping racial wealth gap

Slowing of growth in wages for black people. Recessions had a disproportionate impact on black wealth. Assets held by whites have appreciated/are valued at a higher rate, ex. Housing. Exclusion from programs that were meant to improve wealth. Ongoing discrimination/bias in hiring and housing. Mass incarceration 

Residential segregation

Black people are suggested to live in houses in areas with more black people, same for whites 

Redlining

process of refusing loans to or steeply overcharging anyone buying in poor and minority neighborhoods  

An example of policy that would narrow the racial wealth gap

Heavy taxation of the wealthiest would work to minimize the racial wealth gap. 

Example of heteronormativity

Assuming a woman has a boyfriend or a man has a girlfriend 

Three distinct components of sexuality

Identity, Behavior, Attraction

sexuality - identity

label we attach to our sexuality 

sexuality - behavior

who we engage in sexual activity with 

sexuality - attraction

who we experience attraction to 

Trends in those identifying as LGBTQ

Data measurement is limited due to statistical limitations. Only recently did it begin to be collected, and there are historical and ongoing stigma that make it difficult to capture a "full" picture. The language of studies (e.g. surveys) affects how people respond to questions. 

Sexism

the production of unjust outcomes for people perceived to be biologically female 

Androcentrism

The production of unjust outcomes for people who perform femininity  

Androcentric pay scale

a positive correlation between the number of men in an occupation relative to women and the wages paid to employees.

Gender pay gap

disparity in earnings between men and women in the workplace. It reflects the average difference in income between the two genders, often highlighting systemic inequalities 

Trend in pay gap over the last 50 years 

progress in narrowing the gender pay gap. Policies promoting equal pay, increased awareness, and changes in societal attitudes have contributed to improvements. 

Factors influencing the gender pay gap 

Occupational segregation and Discrimination and bias 

Occupational segregation 

• Mostly men/women work in certain occupations 

• Male dominated jobs have higher wages 

• Women working male job wages go down 

Discrimination and bias 

• Discrimination in hiring (females hired less) 

• Discrimination in setting salaries (women lower) 

• Gendered ideas about mothers and fathers

Motherhood penalty, fatherhood premium

Large pay gap between women with children and women without/men

Sex

The physical characteristics you're born with 
and develop, including genitals, body shape, voice pitch, body hair, hormone, etc.  

Gender

The socially constructed characteristics we assign 
with being male-bodied or female-bodied. 

Feminization of poverty

disproportionate and increasing concentration of poverty among women, particularly those who are heads of households or single mothers. structural and systemic factors, including gender-based discrimination, unequal access to resources, and limited economic opportunities, that contribute to a higher prevalence of poverty among women compared to men. 

State of U.S. supportive work-family policies

• No federal paid parental leave 

• The highest gender wage gap 

• No minimum standard for vacation and 
  sick days 

• Highest maternal and child poverty 
  rates 

Cisgender 

People who are assigned male at birth who identify as men as well as people assigned female at birth who identify as women.  

Transgender

People who do not identify with their assigned sex at birth.