Comprehensive Review – Respiratory, Cardiac, Fluid-Electrolyte & Emergency Care

167 vocabulary-style flashcards covering key respiratory signs, asthma, COPD, infectious lung disease, acute coronary syndromes, CAD/angina, ECG basics & rhythms, hypertension, heart failure, fluid-electrolyte balance, and emergency shock management. Suitable for rapid review and exam preparation.

Dyspnea

Subjective feeling of difficult or laboured breathing; may occur at rest or with exertion.

Orthopnea

Difficulty breathing while lying flat; relieved by sitting upright.

Cheyne-Stokes Respiration

Cyclic crescendo-decrescendo breathing followed by apnea; seen in brain injury or heart failure.

Kussmaul’s Breathing

Deep, laboured breathing pattern associated with metabolic acidosis or diabetic ketoacidosis.

Hypoventilation

Inadequate alveolar ventilation leading to hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis.

Hyperventilation

Excessive alveolar ventilation causing hypocapnia and respiratory alkalosis.

Haemoptysis

Coughing up bright-red, frothy blood from the respiratory tract.

Cyanosis

Bluish discolouration of skin or mucosa due to low oxygen saturation.

Central Cyanosis

Bluish lips and mucous membranes from decreased arterial oxygen.

Peripheral Cyanosis

Blue fingertips or nails caused by poor peripheral circulation.

Clubbing

Bulbous enlargement of distal fingers or toes, indicating chronic hypoxia.

Acute Cough Duration

Cough lasting less than 2–4 weeks.

Chronic Cough Duration

Cough lasting > 4 weeks in children, > 8 weeks in adults.

Pleural Pain

Sharp, inspiratory chest pain from inflamed pleura.

Pulmonary (Tracheobronchial) Pain

Central chest pain due to tracheal or bronchial inflammation.

Asthma

Chronic inflammatory airway disorder with obstruction and hyper-responsiveness.

Extrinsic (Allergic) Asthma

IgE-mediated asthma triggered by environmental allergens; common in children.

Intrinsic (Non-allergic) Asthma

Asthma triggered by cold, stress, infection or exercise; more common in adults.

Common Asthma Symptoms

Wheezing, chest tightness, cough, shortness of breath.

Asthma Triggers

Pollen, exercise, smoke, pets, cold air and other irritants.

Respiratory Alkalosis in Asthma

Early acid-base change from hyperventilation during an attack.

Respiratory Acidosis in Asthma

Late acid-base change due to severe airway obstruction and CO₂ retention.

PEFR Variability (Asthma)

15 % daily variability suggests poor asthma control.

Spirometry

Gold-standard test to diagnose and monitor airway obstruction in asthma/COPD.

Life-Threatening Asthma Signs

Cyanosis, silent chest, poor respiratory effort, drowsiness or exhaustion.

COPD

Chronic, progressive, irreversible airflow limitation (includes chronic bronchitis & emphysema).

Chronic Bronchitis

Productive cough > 3 months in each of 2 consecutive years.

Emphysema

Destruction of alveoli with loss of elastic recoil and air trapping.

Major Cause of COPD

Cigarette smoking.

Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency

Genetic cause of early-onset emphysema in non-smokers.

Barrel Chest

Increased anteroposterior diameter, classic in emphysema.

COPD Breath Sounds

Decreased, with wheezes and prolonged expiration.

Polycythaemia in COPD

Elevated red blood cell count compensating for chronic hypoxia.

Cor Pulmonale

Right-sided heart failure secondary to chronic lung disease such as COPD.

Pink Puffer

Typical emphysema patient—dyspnoeic, thin, pink complexion.

Blue Bloater

Typical chronic bronchitis patient—cyanotic, oedematous, overweight.

Pneumonia

Infection/inflammation of lung parenchyma by bacteria, viruses or fungi.

Lobar Pneumonia

Consolidation involving an entire lobe, often right-sided.

Bronchopneumonia

Patchy, multilobar consolidation centred on bronchioles.

Community-Acquired Pneumonia Pathogen

Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia Pathogen

Staphylococcus aureus.

Common Pneumonia Symptoms

Fever, cough, pleuritic pain, crackles, dyspnoea.

Influenza Virus Types

Type A (most severe), Type B, Type C.

Antigenic Drift

Minor surface antigen mutations causing seasonal epidemics.

Antigenic Shift

Major genome reassortment causing pandemics.

COVID-19 Virus

SARS-CoV-2.

Severe COVID-19 Complication

ARDS – acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS)

Spectrum of conditions caused by sudden myocardial ischaemia (unstable angina, MI).

Stable Angina

Predictable chest pain on exertion, relieved by rest or nitroglycerin.

Unstable Angina

Chest pain at rest or increasing in frequency/severity; warning of MI.

Myocardial Infarction (MI)

Irreversible necrosis of heart muscle from prolonged ischaemia.

STEMI

ST-segment elevation MI; full-thickness myocardial damage.

NSTEMI

Non-ST elevation MI; partial-thickness damage.

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Atherosclerotic narrowing of coronary arteries reducing myocardial blood flow.

Variant (Prinzmetal’s) Angina

Chest pain from coronary artery spasm, often at rest.

Angina Pain Radiation

May spread to neck, jaw, shoulders, or left arm.

Atherosclerosis

Lipid plaque build-up within arterial walls causing narrowing.

Modifiable CAD Risk Factors

Smoking, hypertension, high LDL, obesity, inactivity, diabetes.

Non-modifiable CAD Risk Factors

Age, male sex, ethnicity, family history, genetics.

Myocardial Ischaemia

Insufficient oxygen supply to myocardium leading to angina.

Common MI Symptoms (Men)

Chest pain, dyspnoea, nausea, jaw or back pain.

Atypical MI Symptoms (Women)

Fatigue, nausea, SOB, jaw/back discomfort without classic chest pain.

Troponin

Cardiac biomarker rising 3–6 h post-MI; indicates myocardial injury.

ECG/EKG

12-lead recording of heart’s electrical activity (same test; ‘EKG’ avoids EEG confusion).

P Wave

Represents atrial depolarisation.

QRS Complex

Represents ventricular depolarisation.

T Wave

Represents ventricular repolarisation.

ST Segment Elevation

Indicates acute myocardial infarction (STEMI).

Limb Lead Placement

RA, LA, RL, LL form leads I, II, III, aVR, aVL, aVF.

Chest Leads (Precordials)

V1–V6 placed across anterior chest for horizontal plane views.

ECG Artifact

Distorted tracing from movement, muscle tremor, loose electrodes.

Nurse’s Role During ECG

Prepare skin, place leads, reassure patient, record & recognise basic rhythms.

Hypertension

Persistent BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg.

Primary (Essential) Hypertension

No identifiable cause; ~95 % of cases.

Secondary Hypertension

Elevated BP from an identifiable cause (renal, endocrine, drugs).

Blood Pressure Formula

BP = Cardiac Output × Peripheral Resistance.

Symptoms of Severe Hypertension

Headache, vision changes, fatigue, chest pain, dyspnoea.

Hypertensive Emergency

BP > 220/140 mmHg with target-organ damage; requires immediate therapy.

Hypertensive Urgency

BP > 180/110 mmHg without organ damage; lower BP over 24–48 h.

DASH Diet

Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension: low sodium, high fruits/vegetables, low fat.

Complications of Hypertension

Stroke, MI, heart failure, renal failure, retinopathy.

Common Antihypertensive Classes

Diuretics, β-blockers, ACE inhibitors, calcium-channel blockers.

Heart Failure (HF)

Heart unable to pump adequate blood to meet metabolic needs.

Left-Sided Heart Failure

Pulmonary congestion & dyspnoea due to LV dysfunction.

Right-Sided Heart Failure

Systemic venous congestion causing peripheral oedema, hepatomegaly, ascites.

Systolic HF

Impaired ventricular contraction; reduced ejection fraction.

Diastolic HF

Impaired ventricular relaxation; normal EF but reduced filling.

Common Causes of HF

Hypertension, CAD, MI, valvular disease, diabetes.

Pulmonary Oedema (HF)

Fluid in alveoli from left-sided HF causing severe SOB.

Right-HF Symptoms

Peripheral oedema, jugular venous distension, ascites, weight gain.

S3 Gallop

Early diastolic sound indicating volume overload, common in HF.

Orthopnoea (HF)

Dyspnoea when lying flat; relieved by sitting up.

Daily Weight (HF)

2 kg gain in 48 h signals fluid retention; monitor daily.

Low-Sodium Diet (HF)

Essential lifestyle measure to control fluid overload.

Diuretics (HF)

Medications that remove excess fluid, reducing pulmonary/peripheral oedema.

Beta-Blockers (HF)

Reduce sympathetic drive, lowering heart rate and workload.

HF Patient Education

Adherence to meds, low-salt diet, weight monitoring, symptom reporting.

Hypovolaemia

Fluid volume deficit from vomiting, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, etc.

Signs of Hypovolaemia

Dry mucosa, tachycardia, hypotension, weak pulses.

Hypervolaemia

Excess fluid volume often from renal failure or over-infusion.