AP EURO CH. 11

Francis I of Austria

1. Founder and Emperor of the Austrian Empire
2. Fought against Napoleon in Austerlitz
3. He wanted to put the government back to how it was
4. He hated change
5. Never tired of regaling Vienna's guests with concerts, glittering balls, sumptuous feasts, and countless hunting parties

Prince Klemens von Metternich

1. Austrian minister
2. Believed in the policies of legitimacy and intervention (the military to crush revolts against legitimacy)
3. Leader of the Congress of Vienna
4. Claimed that he was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy
5. disturbed by the revolts in Italy because he saw them as a threat to Austria's domination of the peninsula
6. At Troppau, he proposed a protocol that established the principle of intervention
7. had the diet of the Germanic Confederation draw up the Karlsbad Decrees of 1819
- provided for censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control

Louis XVIII

1. Restored Bourbon throne after the Revoltion
2. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law)
3. Honored the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land
4. Established a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate)

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

1. French diplomat who attended the Congress of Vienna on behalf of King Louis XVIII and helped ensure fairness as the new map was drawn

Klemens von Metternich

1. This was Austria's foreign minister who wanted a balance of power in an international equilibrium of political and military forces that would discourage aggression

Edmund Burke

1. A conservative leader who was deeply troubled by the aroused spirit of reform
2. In 1790, he published Reforms on The Revolution in France, one of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism
3. He defended inherited priveledges in general and those of the English monarchy and aristocracy
4. Glorified unrepresentative Parliament and predicted reform would lead to much chaos/tyranny
5. advised against the violent overthrow of a government by revolution, but he did not reject all change

Joseph de Maistre

1. The most influential spokesman for a counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism
2. Espoused the restoration of hereditary monarchy, which he regarded as divinely sanctioned; only absolute monarchy could guarantee 'order in society'

Simón Bolívar

1. Venezuelan statesman who led the revolt of South American colonies against Spanish rule
2. regarded as the George Washington of Latin America
3. introduced as a young man to the ideas of the Enlightenment(born into wealthy family)
4. committed himself to free his people from Spanish control
5. began to lead the bitter struggle for independence in Venezuela as well as other parts of northern South America
6. he definitively defeated Spanish forces
7. become president of Venezuela
8. took on the task of crushing the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho

José de San Martín

1. South American general and statesman, born in Argentina: leader in winning independence for Argentina, Peru, and Chile; protector of Peru
2. went to Spain and pursued a military career in the Spanish army
3. learned of the liberation movement in his native Argentina, abandoned his military career in Spain, and returned to his homeland in March 1812
4. Argentina had already been freed from Spanish control, but he believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any nation was to remain free
5. In January 1817, he led his forces over the high Andes Mountains, an amazing feat in itself
6. Convinced that he was unable to complete the liberation of all of Peru, he welcomed the arrival of Bolívar and his forces
7. Left South America for Europe, where he remained until his death outside Paris in 1850

James Monroe

1. The fifth President of the United States (1817-1825)
2. His administration was marked by the acquisition of Florida (1819); the Missouri Compromise (1820), in which Missouri was declared a slave state; and the profession of the Monroe Doctrine (1823), declaring U.S. opposition to European interference in the Americas

Charles X

1. 1824-1830, Bourbon king of France after LXVIII
2. Previously the Count of Artois - one the the first emigres in revolution and very active in organizing the emigres opposition to the revolution
3. He was the favorite Bourbon among the most obstinate ex-seigneurs, nobles and high churchmen
4. Very reactionary in his reign.
5. granted an indemnity to aristocrats whose lands had been confiscated during the Revolution
6. pursued a religious policy that encouraged the Catholic Church to reestablish control over the French educational system
7. Public outrage, fed by liberal newspapers, forced the king to compromise in 1827 and even to accept the principle of ministerial responsibility—that the ministers of the king were responsible to the legislature

Ferdinand VII

1. King of Spain from 1813 to 1833
2. Arrested for his complicity in the conspiracy of the Escorial in which liberal reformers aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon
3. Restored the nobility church and monarchy to previous status
4. Agreed to observe the liberal constitution of 1812, which allowed for the functioning of an elected parliamentary assembly known as the Cortes
5. reneged on his promises, tore up the constitution, dissolved the Cortes, and persecuted its members, which led a combined group of army officers, upper-middle-class merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt
6. made concessions to appease the revolutionaries but awaited an opportunity to re-establish firm control
7. agreed to abdicate in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I who worked vigorously to restore the imperial government in Hungary.

Frederick William III

1. Prussian King during Napoleonic Era, instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat by Napoleon. (reforms included abolition of serfdom, created self-government though town councils, expansion of schools, and establishment of a national army)
2. Prussia remained an absolutist state with little interest in unity
3. Instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon
- the abolition of serfdom, municipal self-government through town councils, the expansion of primary and secondary schools, and universal military conscription to form a national army
4. grew more reactionary and was content to follow Metternich's lead

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn

1. organized gymnastic societies during the Napoleonic wars to promote the regeneration of German youth
2. encouraged Germans to pursue their Germanic heritage and urged his followers to disrupt the lecturers of professors whose views were not nationalistic

Alexander I

1. the tsar of Russia whose plans to liberalize the government of Russia were unrealized because of the wars with Napoleon
2. raised in the ideas of the Enlightenment and initially seemed willing to make reforms
3. relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, and reformed the educational system
4. refused, however, to grant a constitution or free the serfs in the face of opposition from the nobility
5. After the defeat of Napoleon, he became a reactionary, and his government reverted to strict and arbitrary censorship

Nicholas I

1. Russian Tsar that succeeced Alexander
2. He strengthened the secret police and the bureaucracy
- The political police, known as the Third Section of the tsar's chancellery, were given sweeping powers over much of Russian life
-- deported suspicious or dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance of foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion
3. He was willing to use Russian troops to crush revolutions, as he greatly feared them
4. Transformed from a conservative into a reactionary determined to avoid another rebellion
5. lamented to Queen Victoria in April 1848, "What remains standing in Europe? Great Britain and Russia." (context: Other countries all follow France's revolutionaries)

Thomas Malthus

1. Eighteenth-century English intellectual who warned that population growth threatened future generations because, in his view, population growth would always outstrip increases in agricultural production
2. Essay on the Principles of Population
- Argued that population, when unchecked, increases at a geometric rate while the food supply correspondingly increases at a much slower arithmetic rate
3. Believes that nature imposes a major restraint with severe labor and exposure to the seasons, extreme poverty, bad nursing of children, excesses of all kinds, many common diseases, epidemics, wars, plague, and famine
(Economist)

David Ricardo

1. English economist who formulated the "iron law of wages," according to which wages would always remain at the subsistence level for the workers because of population growth
2. Malthus' ideas were further developed by him
3. Principles of Political Economy
- developed his famous "iron law of wages."
4. argued that an increase in population means more workers; more workers in turn cause wages to fall below the subsistence level
5. According to him, raising wages arbitrarily would be pointless since it would accomplish little but perpetuate this vicious circle
(Economist)

John Stuart Mill

1. Arguably the most famous English philosopher and politician of the 1800s
2. Champion of liberty over unlimited state control
3. Also famous for adding falsification as a key component of the scientific method.
4. On Liberty, his most famous work, published in 1859
- long been regarded as a classic statement on the liberty of the individual
5. argued for an "absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects" that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of the majority
6. expanded the meaning of liberalism by becoming an enthusiastic supporter of women's rights
- attempted to include women in the voting reform bill of 1867 failed
-- published an essay titled On the Subjection of Women, which he had written earlier with his wife, Harriet Taylor
--- argued that the legal subordination of one sex to the other was wrong
--- Differences between women and men, he said, were due not to different natures but simply to social practices
(Liberal)

Charles Fourier

1. A leading utopian socialist who envisaged small communal societies in which men and women cooperated in agriculture and industry, abolishing private property and monogamous marriage as well
2. Proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries
- self-contained cooperatives, each consisting ideally of 1,620 people
- inhabitants of the phalanstery would live and work together for their mutual benefit
- Work assignments would be rotated frequently to relieve workers of undesirable tasks
3. Fourier was unable to gain financial backing for his phalansteries and his plan remained untested
(utopian socialist)

Robert Owen

1. British cotton manufacturer believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment
2. At New Lanark in Scotland, he was successful in transforming a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community
3. When he attempted to create a self-contained cooperative community at New Harmony, Indiana, in the United States in the 1820s, bickering within the community eventually destroyed his dream
4. One of his disciples, a wealthy woman named Frances Wright, bought slaves in order to set up a model community at Nashoba, Tennessee
- The community failed, but Wright continued to work for women's rights
(utopian socialist)

Louis Blanc

1. A Paris journalist, editor of Revue de Progres and author of Organization of Work
2. Proposed social workshops/state supported manufacturing centers as a way to deal with the problems of industrialization(recognized the developing hostility toward the owning class/bourgeoisie)
3. The Organization of Work
- maintained that social problems could be solved by government assistance
4. called for the establishment of workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale
- state would finance these workshops, but the workers would own and operate them
(utopian socialist)

Zoé Gatti de Gamond

1. Belgian follower of Fourier who created her own phalanstery which was supposed to provide men & women with the same educational & job opportunities
- men and women were to share responsibilities for child care and housecleaning

Saint Simon

1. This man was one of the early and influential socialist thinkers who proclaimed the tremendous possibilities of industrial development
2. ideas of his combined Christian values, scientific thought, and socialist utopianism
- proved especially attractive to a number of women who participated in the growing political activism of women that had been set in motion during the French Revolution
3. His ideal cooperative society recognized the principle of equality between men and women, and a number of working-class women, including Suzanne Voilquin, Claire Démar, and Reine Guindorf, published a newspaper dedicated to the emancipation of women
(Socialist)

Flora Tristan

1. Socialist and feminist who called for working women's social and political rights
2. Attempted to foster a "utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism"
3. traveled through France preaching the need for the liberation of women
4. Her Worker's Union
- published in 1843
- advocated the application of Fourier's ideas to reconstruct both family and work
5. envisioned absolute equality as the only hope to free the working class and transform civilization
6. largely ignored by her contemporaries
7. criticized for their impracticality but the utopian socialists at least laid the groundwork for later attacks on capitalism that would have a far-reaching result

Louis Philippe

1. King of France following Charles X
2. Abdicated the throne against threat of republican revolution (smelled his popularity was diminishing)
3. called the bourgeois monarch because political support for his rule came from the upper middle class
4. dressed like a member of the middle class in business suits and hats
5. Constitutional changes that favored the interests of the upper bourgeoisie were instituted
6. Financial qualifications for voting were reduced yet remained sufficiently high that the number of voters increased only from 100,000 to barely 200,000, guaranteeing that only the wealthiest people would vote.
7. His government continued to refuse to make changes, and opposition grew
8. he was unable to form another ministry and abdicated on February 24 and fled to Britain

Leopold of Saxe-Coburg

1. had connections to the British royal family
2. married daughter of Louis Philippe
3. designated to be the new Belgium king, and a Belgian national congress established a constitutional monarchy for the new state

Robert Peel

1. Tory prime minister
2. Joined with Whigs and a minority of his own party to repeal Corn Laws in 1846 and allow free imports of grain

Guizot

1. Louis Philippe's prime minister
2. It was outside his home in Paris that guards shot demonstrators, killing 20, and provoked the riots which caused Louis Philippe to abdicate
3. He had supported Louis in his resistance to both liberals and radicals
4. Radical republicans and socialists, joined by the upper middle class under the leadership of Adolphe Thiers, agitated for the dismissal of him

King Frederick William IV

1. Prussian King
2. agreed to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, and work for a united Germany
3. gruffly refused the assembly's offer of the title of "emperor of the Germans" in March 1849 and ordered the Prussian delegates home

Louis Kossuth

1. Hungarian statesman who led his people in revolt against the Habsburg Empire during 1848-1849
2. Leader of the Hungarians
3. Demanded national autonomy with full liberties and universal suffrage in 1848

Alfred Windischgratz

1. Austrian commander put down revolts in 1848
2. Led a military force that ruthlessly suppressed the Czech rebels in Prague

Giuseppe Mazzini

1. A political nationalist in Italy in the mid 1800's
2. He started a group called Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state
- goal was the creation of a united Italian republic
3. By the mid nineteenth century, Young Italy had inspired the development of nationalist movements in other countries besides Italy, such as Ireland, Switzerland and Hungary
4. urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the Italian nation

Cristina Belgioioso

1. wealthy aristocrat who worked to bring about Italian unification
2. An Italian woman who joined Giuseppe Mazzini in 1830 to attempt to revolt in Italy
3. She fled to Paris and started a newspaper

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

1. Elected president of France following general election
2. Won 70% of the votes because of his name
3. Bonaparte later changed the government to an empire with himself as emperor just like his uncle, the original Napoleon

Alexander Hamilton

1. First Secretary of the Treasury
2. He advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, and a tariff system to pay off the national debt

Thomas Jefferson

1. Author of the Declaration of Independence
2. Third U.S. president

James Madison

1. "Father of the Constitution,"
2. Federalist leader
3. fourth President of the United States.

John Marshall

1. American jurist and politician who served as the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court
2. Helped establish the practice of judicial review
3. made the Supreme Court into an important national institution by asserting the right of the Court to overrule an act of Congress if the Court found it to be in violation of the Constitution
4. Under him, the Supreme Court contributed further to establishing the supremacy of the national government by curbing the actions of state courts and legislatures

Andrew Jackson

1. The seventh President of the United States
2. Defeated the British at New Orleans (1815)
3. As president he opposed the Bank of America, objected to the right of individual states to nullify disagreeable federal laws, and increased the presidential powers

Caspar David Friedrich

1. 19th century German Romantic painter
2. Considered by many critics to be one of the finest representatives of the movement especially Romantic painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog
3. painted landscapes with an interest that transcended the mere presentation of natural details

Joseph Malford William Turner

1. dwelt on nature and made landscape his major subject
2. an incredibly prolific artist who produced more than 20,000 paintings, drawings, and watercolors
3. Many of his works addressed the encroachment of industrialization upon nature
4. He sought to convey natures moods by using a skilled interplay of light and color to suggest natural effects

Eugene Delacroix

1. most famous French Romantic artist
2. Largely self-taught
3. He was fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color
4. rejoiced in combining theatricality and movement with a daring use of color
5. Many of his works reflect his own belief that "a painting should be a feast to the eye."

Ludwig van Beethoven

1. German composer of instrumental music
2. served as a bridge between Classicism and Romanticism
3. For him, music had to reflect his deepest inner feelings
4. came from a family of musicians who worked for the electors of Cologne
5. He became an assistant organist at the court by the age of thirteen and soon made his way to Vienna, the musical capital of Europe, where he studied briefly under Haydn
6. his work was largely within the classical framework of the eighteenth century, and the influences of Haydn and Mozart are apparent
- with the composition of the Third Symphony, also called the Eroica, which was originally intended for Napoleon, Beethoven broke through to the elements of Romanticism in his use of uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions
7. went on to write a vast quantity of works, but in the midst of this productivity and growing fame, he was more and more burdened by his growing deafness
- One of the most moving pieces of music of all time, the chorale finale of his Ninth Symphony, was composed when Beethoven was totally deaf

Hector Berlioz

1. One of the musical geniuses who composed in the Romantic style
2. His father, a doctor in Grenoble, intended that his son should also study medicine
3. He eventually rebelled, however, maintaining to his father's disgust that he would be "no doctor or apothecary but a great composer."
4. He achieved fame in Germany, Russia, and Britain, although the originality of his work kept him from receiving much recognition in his native France
5. He was one of the founders of program music, which was an attempt to use the moods and sound effects of instrumental music to depict the actions and emotions inherent in a story, an event, or even a personal experience
6. Symphonie Fantastique
- In this work, Berlioz used music to evoke the passionate emotions of a tortured love affair, including a fifth movement in which he musically creates an opium-induced nightmare of a witches' gathering.

Congress of Vienna

1. Following Napoleon's exile, this meeting of European rulers in Austria established a system by which the balance of power would be maintained, liberal revolutions would be repressed, as would imperial expansion, and the creation of new countries in Europe
2. Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
3. established nine states in Italy, including Piedmont

principle of legitimacy

1. The idea that after the Napoleonic wars, peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions
2. Guided Metternich at the Congress of Vienna
3. largely ignored and completely overshadowed by more practical considerations of power

Congress system

1. The members of the Quadruple Alliance agreed to meet periodically to discuss their common interests and to consider appropriate measures for the maintenance of peace in Europe
2. This agreement was the beginning of the European "congress system."
3. The congress system was established by the Holy Alliance which included the countries of Russia, Prussia, and Austria

Balance of Power

1. Distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from becoming too strong

The Reform Act of 1832

1. Gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the Industrial Revolution
2. Disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns and reapportioned others
- Gave the new industrial urban communities some voice in government
4. Property qualification (of £10 annual rent) for voting was retained
- number of voters increased only from 478,000 to 814,000
-- one in every thirty people was represented in Parliament
5. Primarily benefited the upper middle class
6. the lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers still had no vote
7. did not significantly alter the composition of the House of Commons
8. industrial middle class had been joined to the landed interests in ruling Britain

Holy Alliance

1. Alliance among Russia, Prussia, and Austria in defense of religion and the established order; formed at Congress of Vienna by most conservative monarchies of Europe

French Socialists

1. Believed in economic planning
2. Government should rationally organize the economy
3. The rich and the poor should be more nearly equal economically
4. Private property should be strictly regulated by the government or that it should be abolished and replaced by state or community ownership

Conservatism

1. A belief that limited government insures order competitive markets and personal opportunity

Romanticism

1. A movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual

Exoticism

1. Nineteenth-century trend in which composers wrote music that evoked feelings and settings of distant lands or foreign cultures

Individualism

1. emphasis on and interest in the unique traits of each person

Germanic Confederation

1. League of German states created by the Congress of Vienna to replace the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine

principle of intervention

1. The idea, after the Congress of Vienna, that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries experiencing revolution to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones
2. Britain refused to agree to the principle, arguing that it had never been the intention of the Quadruple Alliance to interfere in the internal affairs of other states, except in France

Concert of Europe

1. A series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century
2. Devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions
3. Developed as a means to maintain the new status quo they had constructed

Battle of Chacabuco

1. Battle led by San Martín in which Chile forces were defeated and San Martín led Argentinian forces through the Andes mountains

Treaty of Adrianople in 1829

1. ended the Russian-Turkish war
2. Russians received a protectorate over the two provinces
3. After Russian advances against the Ottomans, the Europeans intervened and got both parties to sign this treaty
4. Gave the Russians control over the Caucausus and the Danube
5. Greeks got their independence
6. Ottoman Empire agreed to allow Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of Greece
- three powers declared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new royal dynasty was established
7. Greek revolt was the only successful one in Europe; the conservative domination was still largely intact

Tories

1. A person who supported the British cause in the American Revolution; a loyalist

Whigs

1. Conservatives and popular with pro-Bank people and plantation owners
2. They mainly came from the National Republican Party, which was once largely Federalists
3. They took their name from the British political party that had opposed King George during the American Revolution
4. Their policies included support of industry, protective tariffs, and Clay's American System
5. They were generally upper class in origin
6. Included Clay and Webster

Corn Law of 1815

1. A measure that placed extraordinarily high tariffs on foreign grain that was beneficial to landowners, but made bread too high for the working class

Peterloo Massacre

1. In 1819, during a public meeting in St. Peter's Fields (Manchester, England), calvary charged into the crowd, killing eleven
2. The purpose of the meeting was to protest the Corn Laws

ultraroyalist

1. in nineteenth-century France
2. a group of aristocrats who sought to return to a monarchical system dominated by a landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church

ministerial responsibility

1. The idea that the prime minister is responsible to the popularly elected legislative body and not to the king or president

Carbonari

1. A secret society
2. Designated to overthrow Bonapartist rulers
3. They were liberal patriots

The Vienna settlement in 1815

1. Recognized the existence of thirty-eight sovereign states in what had once been the Holy Roman Empire
- Austria and Prussia were the two great powers
2. states formed the Germanic Confederation

Burschenschaften

1. Student societies in the German states dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany.
2. Their ideas and their motto, "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland," were in part inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who had organized gymnastic societies during the Napoleonic wars to promote the regeneration of German youth and support the "War of German Liberation" against the French

Northern Union

1. Liberal Russian aristocrats opposed to Alexander I's conservatism who wanted to make Russia a constitutional monarchy
2. included both young aristocrats who had served in the Napoleonic wars and become aware of the world outside Russia and intellectuals alienated by the censorship and lack of academic freedom in Russian universities
3. favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom
4. during the ensuing confusion in December 1825, the military leaders of this rebelled against the accession of Nicholas
- soon crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas, and its leaders were executed

Liberalism

1. A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes
2. People should be as free from restraint as possible
3. liberalism was tied to middle-class men, especially industrial middle-class men who favored the extension of voting rights so that they could share power with the landowning classes

Economic Liberalism

1. Idea that the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy

Polticial Liberalism

1. Idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly

Nationalism

1. A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country
2. arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, historical traditions, language, and customs
3. community constitutes a "nation," and it, rather than a dynasty, city-state, or other political unit, becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty
4. did not become a popular force for change until the French Revolution
5. they came to believe that each nationality should have its own government
- divided people such as the Germans wanted national unity in a German nation-state with one central government
6. threatened to upset the existing political order, both internationally and nationally

Socialism

1. A political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole

utopian socialists

1. Intellectuals and theorists in the early nineteenth century who favored equality in social and economic conditions and wished to replace private property and competition with collective ownership and cooperation
2. against private property and the competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism
- By eliminating these things and creating new systems of social organization, they thought that a better environment for humanity could be achieved

phalanstery

1. A self-sustaining cooperative community, as advocated by Charles Fourier in the early 19th century

July Ordinances

1. This ruling was passed by Charles X in France in an attempt to restore the Ancient Regime.
2. Denied civil liberties such as denying freedom of the press and dissolving the legislature.

July Revolution

1. Overthrow of Charles X and the ascension of Louis-Philippe to the French throne
2. The July Revolution is important because it marked the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to the House of Orléans

Chamber of Deputies

1. French lower house
2. The Main functions and powers include: - Representing the population; - Passing legislation; - Scrutinizing and overseeing executive action

The Party of Movement

1. A French reform movement led by Adolphe Thiers which favored ministrial responsibility, pursuit of an active forgein policy, and limited expansion of voting rights

Party of Resistance

1. A French reform movement led by Francois Guizot, who belied that France had finally reached the "perfect form" of government and needed no further institutional changes
2. dominated the Chamber of Deputies after 1840

Poor Law of 1834

1. Based on the theory that giving to the poor only encouraged laziness and increased paupers
2. Tried to remedy this by making their lives so hard they would choose to work
3. Those unable to support themselves were crowded in workhouses where working and living conditions were intentionally miserable so that people could find employment

Political Banquets

1. political rallies
2. used by the people to protest Louis-Philippe
3. barricades in Paris
4. seventy such banquets were held in France during the winter of 1847-1848; a grand culminating banquet was planned for Paris on February 22

provisional government

1. A temporary government

Grossdeutsch

1. Means "great German"
2. Was the argument that the German-speaking portions of the Habsburg Empire should be included in a united Germany
- includes the German province of Austria

Kleindeutsch

1. Meaning "small German"
2. The argument that the German-speaking portions of the Habsburg Empire should be excluded from a united Germany
- excluding Austria and making the Prussian king the emperor of the new German state

risorgimento

1. A movement in Italy in the nineteenth century aimed at the creation of a united Italian republica

War of 1812

1. A war between the U.S. and Great Britain caused by American outrage over the impressment of American sailors by the British, the British seizure of American ships, and British aid to the Indians attacking the Americans on the western frontier
2. A war against Britain gave the U.S. an excuse to seize the British northwest posts and to annex Florida from Britain's ally Spain, and possibly even to seize Canada from Britain. The War Hawks (young westerners led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun) argued for war in Congress
3. The war involved several sea battles and frontier skirmishes. U.S. troops led by Andrew Jackson seized Florida and at one point the British managed to invade and burn Washington, D.C. 4. The Treaty of Ghent (December 1814) restored the status quo and required the U.S. to give back Florida. Two weeks later, Andrew Jackson's troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans, not knowing that a peace treaty had already been signed
5. The war strengthened American nationalism and encouraged the growth of industry

Federalism

1. A form of government in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the states

serjents

1. New police force established in France; wore blue uniforms to be easily recognized and lightly armed to distinguish them as a civilian, not military body
2. Paris had eighty-five by August 1829 and only five hundred in 1850. Before the end of the century, their number had increased to four thousand.

bobbies

1. British police force whose primary goal was the prevention of crime
2. Named after Sir Robert Peel, who introduced the legislation that created the force

Schutzmannschaft

1. State-financed police force in Germany, modeled after the London police established for the city of Berlin
2. Initally a civilian body, it soon became organized along military lines and was used for political purposes; their weaponry included swords, pistols, and brass knuckles
3. force had become organized more along military lines and was used for political purposes

Organized religion

1. a social institution, in which belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally established

Incarceration

1. A method of protecting society from criminals by keeping them in prisons

The Sorrows of the Young Werther

1. novel by Goethe
2. about a sensitive young man whose hopeless love for a virtuous married woman drives him to suicide; showed them of individualism and developed the idea of a romantic hero, who defies the world and sacrifices himself for some great cause

Ivanhoe

1. By Walter Scott
2. Scott tried to evoke the clash between Saxon and Norman knights in medieval England

Gothic literature

1. a form of literature used by Romantics to emphasize the bizarre and unusual, especially evident in horror stories

Prometheus Unbound

1. By Percy Bysshe Shelley
2. A portrait of the revolt of human beings against the laws and customs that oppress them