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Ottomans
A powerful Turkish empire that controlled much of the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and North Africa. In 1453, they captured the city of Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and establishing their dominance.
1453
The year the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Mohammed II, captured Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). This event marked a major shift in world history, especially in terms of trade and power in Europe and the Middle East.
Renamed it Istanbul
After the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, they changed its name to Istanbul, making it the capital of their empire.
Venice
A city in Italy that was a major trading power in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Venice controlled much of the trade in luxury goods like spices and silks, especially through connections with the Middle East and Asia.
Reconquista
The process by which Christian kingdoms in Spain took back land from Muslim rulers, ending in 1492 with the capture of Granada. This victory ignited religious zeal for further expansion.
Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal
A Portuguese prince who financially supported exploration along Africa’s west coast in the 15th century, aiming for military glory, Christianizing Muslims, and finding new trade routes.
Caravel
A small, light, and highly efficient Portuguese ship developed in the 15th century, which allowed for longer sea voyages and exploration.
Magnetic compass
A navigation tool that allowed sailors to determine direction at sea, helping explorers navigate the oceans more accurately.
Astrolabe
A device used by sailors to measure the position of the stars, allowing them to calculate their latitude and navigate during long journeys.
The Portuguese Overseas Empire
Portugal's empire built through exploration along the African coast, gaining control of trade in gold, slaves, and spices. It expanded to include territories in India and the Indian Ocean by the 16th century.
Vasco da Gama
A Portuguese explorer who, in 1497, successfully rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached India, establishing a direct sea route for trade with Asia.
The Problem of Christopher Columbus
Columbus aimed to find a westward route to Asia, but in 1492, he mistakenly landed in the Bahamas, believing he had reached islands near Japan. He never realized he had discovered a new continent.
1492
The year Christopher Columbus embarked on his first voyage, discovering the Americas for Spain, which led to European colonization of the New World.
Amerigo Vespucci
An Italian navigator who realized that the lands discovered by Columbus were part of a new continent, not Asia. His name inspired the term "America."
Alexander VI
The pope who helped settle territorial disputes between Spain and Portugal through the Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing the newly discovered lands in the Atlantic between the two nations.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
An agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the New World between them. Spain received the lands to the west, and Portugal the lands to the east, including Brazil.
Pedro Alvares Cabral
A Portuguese explorer who, in 1500, accidentally landed in Brazil, claiming it for Portugal as part of their expanding empire.
Ferdinand Magellan
A Portuguese explorer whose expedition (1519-1522) was the first to circumnavigate the globe, proving the Earth was larger than previously thought.
Jacques Cartier
A French explorer who sailed up the St. Lawrence River in search of a northwest passage to Asia, but instead established a fur trade with Native American tribes in the region.
Hernando Cortés
Hernando Cortés: A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Mexica (Aztec) Empire in Mexico in 1519 by exploiting internal conflicts and using military force
Francisco Pizarro
A Spanish conquistador who, in 1532, ambushed the Inca Empire in Peru, capturing and executing their leader, Atahualpa, and claiming the Inca riches for Spain.
Roanoke (1585)
The first English attempt at establishing a colony in North America. The colony mysteriously disappeared after a three-year gap in contact with England, leaving behind only the word "Croatoan" carved into a tree.
Jamestown, Virginia (1607)
The first successful permanent English settlement in North America, where settlers cultivated tobacco, which became a profitable export to Europe.
Plymouth (1620)
A settlement in New England founded by English Pilgrims seeking religious freedom, known for its early struggles and association with the first Thanksgiving.
Samuel de Champlain
A French explorer who established the first permanent French settlement in North America, at Quebec, in 1608.
LaSalle
A French explorer who traveled the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico in 1682, claiming the region for France and naming it Louisiana.
Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
A global conflict between major European powers. In North America, it was known as the French and Indian War. It ended with France losing most of its North American territories to Britain.
Intendants
Royal officials appointed by the Spanish monarchy with military, administrative, and financial authority. They answered directly to the monarchy rather than local leaders, helping to centralize control of the colonies.
Encomienda
A system where the Spanish Crown granted conquerors the right to use indigenous people for labor or demand tribute from them in exchange for providing protection and food. In reality, it was a form of legalized slavery.
Jesuit
Members of a Catholic religious order called the Society of Jesus, who were missionaries and educators. In the colonies, they worked to convert indigenous people to Christianity and teach them European customs.
Columbian Exchange
The widespread transfer of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and the New World (the Americas) following Columbus's voyages.
Smallpox
A deadly infectious disease brought by Europeans to the Americas, causing large-scale fatalities among indigenous populations who had no immunity to it.
Typhus
Another disease brought by Europeans, transmitted by lice, which also contributed to the devastating population losses among Native Americans.
Influenza
A contagious viral infection, commonly known as the flu, that was introduced to the New World by Europeans, further weakening indigenous communities already vulnerable to foreign diseases.
Portuguese
In the context of early European exploration and trade, the Portuguese were pioneers, especially in the African slave trade, bringing enslaved Africans to Lisbon as early as 1444 and establishing sugar plantations in Brazil worked by enslaved Africans.
Inflation
In 16th-century Spain, a rapid rise in population and demand for goods, combined with the influx of silver from the New World, led to widespread price increases (inflation), which negatively impacted the Spanish economy.
First Time in History (Seaborne Trade)
With the European discovery of the Americas and Pacific exploration, the world became connected for the first time through seaborne trade routes, facilitating global exchange of goods, people, and resources.
1621 (Dutch West India Company)
The Dutch West India Company was established in 1621 during a war with Spain. It aimed to open trade with the Americas and capture Spanish territories, playing a significant role in the transatlantic trade, including the slave trade.
Principal Operators of the Slave Trade Starting in the 1640s
The Dutch, through the Dutch West India Company, became key players in the transatlantic slave trade in the 1640s, gaining control of parts of West Africa and transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas.
Aristotle’s (argument on slavery)
The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that some people are naturally destined for slavery, an idea later used to justify the enslavement of Africans by Europeans.
Biblical associations (regarding race and slavery)
Europeans linked black skin with sin and slavery, drawing on biblical references that associated darkness with evil or punishment, which they used to justify the enslavement of Africans.
Skepticism
A school of thought that suggests that absolute certainty or definitive knowledge is unattainable. People became skeptical of religious and cultural superiority during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Cultural relativism
The idea that no culture is inherently superior to another; they are just different. This concept grew as Europeans encountered various cultures during the age of exploration.
Michel de Montaigne
A French writer (1533–1592) who pioneered the essay as a literary genre. He was known for promoting skepticism and cultural relativism, especially in his essay "On Cannibals," where he argued that no culture is inherently superior to another.
"On Cannibals" (Michel de Montaigne's essay)
An essay by Montaigne where he rejected the idea of cultural superiority and criticized European views of other peoples, using examples from newly discovered societies in the New World.
