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Behavioral Perspective

Emerged from the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured.

Humanistic Perspective

Emerged from the pioneering work of Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow. Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective

Emerged from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.

Cognitive Perspective

Influenced by the computer revolution, the cognitive perspective compares the mind to a computer that encodes, processes, and stores information.

Biological Perspective

Emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells.

Evolutionary Perspective

Influenced by the seminal writings of Charles Darwin. Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes.

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The factor that is measured by the experimenter. It is affected by, and thus depends on, the independent variable.

Experimental Group

Group that is exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

Group that is exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment (also known as extraneous variables).

Double-Blind Study

A procedure in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment. Designed to reduce experimenter bias.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a single research participant or single experience.

Correlation Research

The researcher observes or measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them. In correlation research, the researcher does not directly manipulate the variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Mean

A measure of central tendency that provides the average score. Any change in the highest score in a distribution must result in a change in the mean.

Median

A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution exactly in half.

Mode

A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean.

Normal Distribution

A bell shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population. In a normal distribution, half the scores fall at or above the mean and half the scores fall at or below the mean.

P-Value

The probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist. A statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance. By consensus, a statistically significant difference is one that would show up only 5 percent of the time or less. The smaller the p-value the more significant the results.

Classical Conditioning

Based upon the work of Ivan Pavlov. The learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning.

Unconditioned Response

An unlearned response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.

Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus was originally the neutral stimulus. When systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response.

Conditioned Response

A conditioned response is a learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response.

Reinforcement

Strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur.

Positive Reinforcement

A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of a stimulus.

Premack Principle

States that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Shaping

The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed.

Punishment

Punishment is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur.

Negative Punishment

Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur.

Observational Learning

Occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the observed behavior.

Longitudinal Method

Measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time.

Cross-Sectional Method

Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

Schema

A concept of framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

The process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation

The process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

Object Permanence

An infant's understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or touched.

Irreversibility

The child's inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations.

Conservation

Understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes.

Permissive Style of Parenting

Parents set few firm rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions.

Authoritative Style of Parenting

Parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child's viewpoint while still insisting on responsible behavior.

Authoritarian Style of Parenting

Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view.

Psychological Stages

Erik Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved.

Heinz Dilemma

Question posed by Kohlberg concerning morality and ethics, concerning a situation where an individual may have to steal a drug.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget's theories of development; the child begins to interact with the environment.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage in Piaget's theories of development; the child begins to interpret the world symbolically, but has not necessarily figured out conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget's theories of development; the child figures out conservation and object permanence at or before this stage.

Formal Operation Stage

The final stage in Piaget's theories of development; adulthood.

Animistic Thinking

Occurs when child attributes feelings and/or emotions to inanimate objects or concepts such as 'the sky is happy today.'

Egocentrism

Occurs when child cannot view another point of view, or believes a perfect present for another person is the present they would like to receive themselves.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Crisis tied to Erikson's first stage of development in which the child begins to interact with the environment.

Autonomy vs. Shame

Crisis tied to Erikson's second stage of development in which the child is usually trained to use the restroom by themselves.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Crisis tied to Erikson's third stage of development in which the child develops problem solving and views of the world around them.

Self-Serving Bias

The widespread tendency for people to take credit for their successes while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present.

Groupthink

The tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives.

Conformity

The tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group.

Obedience

The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status.

Forebrain

Structures include the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus, with the latter three forming part of the limbic system which regulates emotions such as fear and rage.

Hindbrain

Consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord and serves as our 'life support system' as it controls the basic biological functions that keep us alive.

Medulla Oblongata

Involved in the control of our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing; located above the spinal cord.

Pons

Connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain; involved in the control of facial expressions.

Cerebellum

Located on the bottom rear of the brain that looks like a smaller version of our brain; coordinates some habitual muscle movements (means 'little brain').

Midbrain

Area of the brain located just above the spinal cord that coordinates simple movements with sensory information.

Reticular Formation

A netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention; if this does not function, we fall into a coma.

Thalamus

Located on top of the brain stem and is responsible for receiving sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas of the forebrain.

Hypothalamus

A small structure right next to the thalamus; controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system.

Amygdala

Structures near the end of each hippocampal arm that are vital to our experiences of emotion.

Hippocampus

Part of the mind that surrounds the thalamus that is vital to our memory system as memories are processed through this area and then sent to other locations for permanent storage (damage to this prevents the storage of new information).

Cerebral Cortex

Gray wrinkled surface of the brain that is actually a thin layer of densely packed neurons.

Fissures

Wrinkles on the surface of the brain that increase the available surface area and therefore areas for neurons to be tightly packed together.

Contralateral Control

Phenomenon in which the right hemisphere of the brain gets sensory messages and controls the left side of the body, and vice versa.

Corpus Callosum

The nerve bundle that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Association Area

Any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements; areas are very active in various human thoughts and behaviors.

Frontal Lobe

Large areas of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain behind the eyes.

Prefrontal Cortex

Anterior of the frontal lobe that is thought to play a critical role in directing thought processes; said to act as the brain's central executive and believed to be responsible for abstract thought and emotional control.

Broca's Area

Portion of the frontal lobe responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech; damage to this might leave us unable to make the movements needed to speak.

Wernicke's Area / Temporal Lobe

Area of the brain that processes sound sensed by our ears.

Parietal Lobes

Located behind the frontal lobe but still on top of the brain that contains the sensory cortex.

Sensory Cortex

A thin vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of our body.

Occipital Lobes

Located at the very back of our brain that receives impulses from the retinas in our eyes and is therefore connected to vision.

Central Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that consists of our brain and spinal in which all the nerves are housed within bone (the skull and vertebrae).

Endocrine System

System of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies; controlled by the hypothalamus

Limbic System

Name for a group of brain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Experiment

Groups, random assignment, active manipulation of the Independent Variable

Meta-Analysis

Analysis of multiple studies done by others

Naturalistic Observation

No direct interaction with participants where one observes only

Neurons

Individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system.

Soma

Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.

Dendrites

Rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out and grow to make connections to other neurons.

Acetylcholine

This is a type of neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle contraction and heart rate regulation. It's also involved in memory formation and learning.