AP PSYCH UNIT 7

motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Yerkes-Dobson law

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Bottom to Top)

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization, self transcendence

instinct theory of motivation

there is a genetic basis for unlearned, species-typical behavior

drive-reduction theory of motivation

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused physiological drive that motivates a drive-reducing behavior

arousal theory

our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need

glucose

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

Asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

refractory period

in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

estrogens

Sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

testosterone

The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

Ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

emotion

A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

two-factor analysis

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

GAS

general adaptation syndrome

general adaptation syndrome

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion

tend and befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

psychological illness

"mind-body" illness - stress related - forms of hypertension and headaches

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

Catharsis

in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety

mindfulness meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

free association

In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts, the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

unconscious

According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

id

A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drive. This operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

The largely unconscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

superego

The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

psychosexual stages

The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Oedipus complex

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

identification

The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.

fixation

According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual state, in which conflicts were unresolved.

defense mechanisms

In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

regression

Defense mechanism in which a person retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.

reaction formation

Defense mechanism in which a person switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites.

projection

Defense mechanism in which a person disguises his/her own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

rationalization

Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions.

displacement

Shifting sexual or aggressive impulsive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.

sublimation

Transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives.

denial

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities.

anxiety according to Freud

Product of tensions between the demands of the id and the superego.

how ego copes with anxiety

Use of unconscious defense mechanisms

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

projective test

A personality test, such as Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.

Thematic Apperception Test

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Rorschach inkblot test

The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

false consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors.

terror-management theory

A theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders on their impending death.

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

self-actualization

According to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

The "Big 5" Personality Factors

Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion

personality inventory

A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

The most widely researched and clinically used of al personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

empirically-derived test

A test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

social-cognitive perspective

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

behavioral approach

this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.

reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

self

In contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

spotlight effect

Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders.

self-esteem

One's feelings of high or low self-worth.

self-efficacy

One's sense of competence and effectiveness.

self-serving bias

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

narcissism

Excessive self-love and self-absorption.