Developmental Psychology Umich Psych 250 Exam 2

Phonemes:

-the smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of the word

Lexicon/lexical semantics:

-words and associated knowledge (word forms, word meanings)

morphology

-the system for combining units of meaning together

ex. follow+ed; follow+s; follow+ing

syntax:

-the system for combining words into sentences

ex. the cat sat vs cat sat the

pragmatics:

-knowledge of language use

ex. Can you pass the salt? "yes"

Theories of Language Development: Behaviorism

-language is learned through imitation and reinforcement

>children learn the language they hear in their environment

>we reinforce verbalizations by smiling or responding to requests, increasing likelihood of repeating behavior

Theories of Language Development: Nativism

-we are predisposed to acquire language

>generative: there are rules we learn which generate output

-universal grammar: we are born with structures for language in place

>language acquisition device a part of the brain responsible for learning language

Theories of Language Development: Interactionism

-emphasis on experience

>learning language requires assistance from someone who already knows it

>adults naturally adjust their speech for children

>> recasts

Theories of Language Development: Cognitive Processing Theory

-language learning is based on the same cognitive mechanisms as any other skill we learn

>yes they are processing the input, but social aspect not necessary

-dependent on our sensitivity to statistical regularities

>transitional probabilities = the likelihood that a given sound will follow another in a language

>computer models

Language and the brain

-left hemisphere predominantly

Broca's Area:

-difficulty with speech production

Wernicke's Area:

-difficulty processing speech

-word salad

Brain Development for language

-comprehension develops prior to production

-receptive: understand, can't speak

-expressive

Stages of language Development

-prenatally infants hear mother's voice (show preference for mother's voice and language after birth)

-preverbal communication: crying, cooking(2-4mo), babbling(4-6mo)

-preverbal perception: ba/da

-1st words (10-12 mo)

-multiple word, 50 word vocab (24mo)

-increasing complexity (36mo)

Adults Fostering Speech

-adults simulate conversation by responding to noises from the infant and waiting for the infant to "respond"

-child-directed speech: exaggerated contour, high pitch, slower temp (4mo show preference for this type of speech)

Environmental Effects:

-Hart and Risley (1995) compared high, middle and low SES families in amount of language

>amount of language doubles at each level

>professional parents are more likely to respond as well as to use more nurturing language

Gestures:

-around 6 mo, infants develop the ability to interact with their environment

>shared attention: parents and children focus on or communicate about the same object

-We also seethe use of gestures: baby sign language, SES differences

Vocabulary:

-understanding begins when 9 months, 1st word on average at 12 mo

-up to and after 50 words:

>word spurt, word explosion

>fast mapping

>usually around 18mo

How do we learn language?

-constraints: assumptions children use in word learning

-whole object bias

-mutual exclusivity: there is one and only one name for an object (counterex: cow, bull, calf)

-taxonomic constraint: objects that share properties can share a name (cat and dog are "animals)

Boot strapping:

-picking up the rules of "ed" and "s"

-sometimes they apply the rules too liberally before they learn exceptions

telegraphic stage;

3 or more words

Language in Preschoolers:

egocentric speech: assuming people know everything you know

-private speech: gradually becomes internal

Early Literacy:

-emergent literacy: pretend reading, describing pictures, scribbling on paper

>interaction with adults and literacy, story telling

-dialogic reading: interactive process of adult encouraging dialogue and then allowing the child to take on the storytelling role

Metalinguistic Awareness

-metalinguistic awareness: becoming aware of the rules of the language

>starts around 6 yo

>results in 3rd grade humor

Reading and Writing:

-how to teach reading: phonics (phonome awareness, best predictor of reading) vs whole language (whole words, not jsut sounds)

-writing:

>begin with writing concepts then gradually produce recognizable letters (fine motor skills)

>phoneme awareness plays a role

>knowledge telling/knowledge transforming

Teenagers and Language:

-slang and made up words

-differs within groups and in different regions of the country

-text speech

-writing skills are key to getting a job

Bilingualism

-simultaneous and sequential

-reach language milestones at roughly the same rate

>some evidence of smaller vocabularies for bilingual children

-other factors: motivation, imitative ability, working memory

>bilinguals may have more cognitive flexibility/executive function.

Bilingual Education: Immersion

all subjects taught in english

Bilingual Education: Transitional

-some in struction in L1 at same time as English, transition as soon as possible

Bilingual Education: Developmental

-basic skills in L1 while English taught as L2

Bilingual Education: Dual Language

-both languages are used in same classroom

>requires bilingual teacher

Communication Disorders: Expressive Language Disorder

limited vocab, difficulty with tense, recall, production not appropriate to age

Communication Disorders: Phonological Disorders

-difficulty producing and using sounds correctly

Communication Disorders: receptive

-expressive language disorder

Communication Disorders: stuttering

..

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language:

-missing language milestones is an early indicator of ASD

>wide variation across spectrum

-echolalia: repeat what they year

>persists for those on spectrum

-conversational cues missing

>eye contact, facial expression, body language, turn taking, continuing conversation

Attachment:

-an emotional bond to a particular person which is central to the well being of infants and children

Secure Attachment:

a strong, positive emotional bond. someone who gives comfort and allows you to be yourself

Attachment is an adaptive behavior

-crying, smiling, following all allow the baby to keep their parent near.

>the goal is for the infant to feel secure

-infants who feel safe use their parents as a secure base for exploring

>they will explore and learn then return to the parent

>secure infants are able to be soothed by their caregivers

Freud's Idea of Attachment:

-hunger is the drive that is satisfied by the mother

-baby develops a cathexis of the mother because of the food she provides

Behaviorism Rationale for Attachment

-hunger is the drive that is satisfied by the mother

-classical conditioning of the mother (neutral stimulus) with the food (unconditioned stimulus) to produce satisfaction

Bowlby (1969) Attachment:

-preattachment (birth to six weeks): sensory preferences, crying

-attachment in the making: (6weeks-6/8mo): social smile, stranger anxiety

-clear cut attachment: (6/8mo-18mo/2yr):separation anxiety

-goal corrected partnership or formation of reciprocal relationships (18months on): 2 individuals working togehter and development of internal working model

The strange Situation (Mary Ainsworth)

-Secure attachment

-anxious avoidant attachment: doesn't seek caregiver, explores with or without caregiver

-anxious ambivalent attachment:stays close to caregiver, both seeks and rejects contact with caregiver

-disorganized.disoriented attachment

Role of The Mother in Attachment:

-mother's job is to respond to baby's needs>mothers need support as well

-the myth of bonding>attachment is not made or broken at birth

Role of the Father in Attachment;

-infants can form more than one relationship

>baby boys are more likely to be securely attached to their fathers

>attachments are formed to both parents and is likely to be as secure with the father as with the mother

Role of the Infant in Attachment:

-temperament affects the type of attachment

-temperament predicts the type of insecure attachment

-medical factors (premature birth and neurological problems)

-colic> mothers of colicky infants are more likely to suffer depression and depression leads to less sensitive caregiving

Attachment: Biology

-oxytocin is a hormone linked with loving feelings

-vasopres is a hormone linked with the ability to recognize individuals as familiar

-neglected, orphaned children who are adopted don't have the same levels of these hormones as children who are raised by birth parents

Attachment: Culture:

-proportion of securely attached infants seems to be consistent across cultures

>rates of insecure attachment vary by culture

-what kind of parenting is sensitive?

>the strange situation may not be the correct measure in all cultures

Attachment and Development:

-internal working model translates to the ability to self soothe

-continuity of attachment styles:

>families tend to be consistent

>children tend to replicate relationships

-long term outcomes: attachment insecurity and disorganization in infancy relate to later externalizing behavior problems such as aggression and oppositional problems

Childhood and Adolescent Attachment:

-we can also look at attachment after the strange situation no longer applies

-secure base script: sets out the steps a child would follow if he were in distress and needed some help. A securely attached child expects support, while the insecurely attached child does not

-teens with secure attachment to parents report more secure attachment with peers

Attachment: CHildcare

-insensitive mothering linked to insecure attachment (rather than nonmaternal care)

-intensified by: poor nonmaternal care, more hours in care, changing childcare

-quality of care is linked to attachment, especially group size, caregiver ratio and "best Practices" compensation

Attachment disorders:

-some children have difficulties with attachment to the point of needing intervention

-reactive attachment disorders:

>inhibited type: inability to form any attachments (withdrawn, hyper-vigilant; disorganized/disoriented)

>disinhibited type: indiscriminant attachments to anyone (may actually be adaptive for abandoned children)

Prevention and Treatment for Attachment disorders

-the most effective therapies focused on developing the mother's sensitivity to the baby

-therapy that involved both mothers and fathers had even greater effect

-for adopted children with attachment disorders it is important for the family to know that much hard work will be needed to reverse the child's earlier experiences

Define Emotion:

-the combination of:

>physiological reaction

>cognitive interpretation

>communication with others

>our own actions

-while the basic emotions may be universal (happy, sad, angry) our understanding of them is shaped by culture, language, gender, temperament and personality

Define: Temperament:

-a person's emotional style which guides how they respond to events

>Thomas and Chegg (3 types)

easy, difficult, slow to warm

SEE CHART

Can temperament change?

-some evidence for small changes, but not extreme

>idea of stability

Development of Emotions:

-understanding and recognizing basic emotions develops before awareness of self conscious emotions

-before 3yo only recognize happiness

-after 3/4yo other emotions (anger, sadness, guilt) show up

Basic Emotions

-basic emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise/interest, disgust

Self Conscious Emotions

-self conscious emotions: those that depend on awareness of oneself such as pride, guilt and shame

Empathy

-concern for others' welfare that often leads to helping or comforting them

Teaching Emotions:

-social referencing: looking to others to see how we should react

-conversations about emotions and labeling them helps children cope with their emotions

Emotional Regulation

-Infants have little emotional control (Id)

-early on they develop ways to cope:

>thumb sucking, blankies, looking away

>being sensitive to infants helps with regulation

-routines

-parental assistance

Preschoolers and Emotions

-effortful control: ability to control one's behavior

-delay of gratification: the ability to wait to get somethign you want

Outcomes of Self Control:

-preschoolers with more ability to regulate their emotions had higher academic ability in 3rd grade and higher social competence in adolescence and adulthood

>lack of control as early as 3-5yo predicts delinquency in adulthood

Emotional Intelligence: Goleman (1995)

-emotional intelligence: understanding + controlling one's own emotions, understanding those of others and being able to use all of this understanding to navigate human interactions

-Goleman claims emotional intelligence is equally important as cognitive abilities

Emotional Problems:

-emotions are normal reactions to events in our lives

-sometimes emotions go beyond adaptive response and interfere with ongoing development for children and adolescents

-externalizing behaviors: "acting out" on the environment such as aggressive/destructive behavior

-internalizing behavior: negative behaviors that are directed inward at oenself creating anxiety or depression

Fear:

-response to an event

-fear of things like loud noises or novel items along with stranger/separation anxiety appear during the end of the first year of life

anxiety:

-anticipation of events that may or amy not occur

-severe, long lasting anxiety are symptoms of an anxiety disorder

-separation anxiety, generalized anxiety, social phobia

Phobia:

-fear of something specific that interferes with daily functioning

Sadness:

-a normal response to loss and disappointment

>children who have trouble regulating sadness appear to be more likely to develop depression

Depression:

-beyond sadness to feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness, a lack of pleasure, sleep and appetite disturbance, possibly suicidal ideas or plans

Anger and Aggression:

-most children learn to control their anger by channeling it in appropriate ways

-research shows that most toddlers display low levels of aggression which decrease as they learn to cope

>a small group keeps high stable level of aggression

Aggressional Disorders: Oppositional Defiant Disorder:

-a recurrent pattern of negativistic, defiant, disobedient, and hostile behavior toward authority figures that persists for at least 6 months

-temperament and family play a role (coercive family environment)

-treatment: psychotherapy combined with family therapy

Aggressional Disorders: Conduct Disorder

-repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior which the basic rights of others or major age appropriate social norms or rules are violated

>aggressiveness to people and animals, property destruction, deceptiveness or theft, serious rule violations

-multisystemic treatment based on Bronfenbrenner

Identity: Self Concept

-I vs me (me-defined by characteristics)

-culture effects: all individuals define themselves by individual characteristics and by their relationships-the ratio varies by culture

-how you develop or embody the characteristics valued by your culture can significantly affect you self esteem

The self in infants and toddlers:

-infants develop a sense of self over time

-intention develops infant's concept of being an agent which leads to thinking about self

Self and preschoolers

-sense of self is very concrete: what they do, have or look like

>initiative vs guilt

-autobiographical memory develops, creatings a sense of continuous self over tiem

>parental elaboration style can help children have better autobiographical memory

Self and School Aged Children:

-inner states become part of the sense of self

-social comparison places them in the context of their peers

-social groups begin to form part of identity

-self-concept becomes more realistic than at a younger age

-Erikson's stage of industry vs inferiority

Self and Adolescents:

-the sense of self becomes more abstract and may contain contradictions

-identity vs role confusion

-adolescents will try to find their identity by testing different options>negative identity

Identity Crisis:

-Marcia (1966) described an identity as the process of exploring options (crisis) and investing in choices (commitment)

>identity diffusion: not committed, not concerned

>moratorium: not committed, concerned

>foreclosure: committed, not concerned (no crisis yet)

>identity achievement: gone through crisis and committed

Self Esteem:

-how you feel about your self concept

-preschoolers tend to have high self esteem

>they're comparing themselves to themselves as babies

>social comparison makes self esteem more realistic in school age children

Self Esteem in Adolescents:

-many rapid changes mark adolescents: physical, social, environmental

-increased academic expectations, emphasis on discipline (when they want autonomy), more competition-increasing social comparison

-discrepancy between real self and ideal self

Patterns:

-entry into adolescence is accompanied by a decline in self esteem, but then tends to rise again

-boys typically have higher self esteem than girls

Sex:

-our sex includes that biology that makes us male or female:genes, hormones and physical body parts

Gender:

-all the roles and stereotypes that our society connects with being a boy or being a girl

Theoretical Approach to Gender Identity: Psychoanalytic Theory

-clear gender identity doesn't appear until ~6 yo

-Freud: Oedipus/Electra complex leads to identification with same sex parent

-Nancy Chodorow: Boys must separate from their mothers to develop a masculine identity

Theoretical Approach to Gender Identity: Behavioral and Social Learning

-parents reinforce sex-typed play activities and household chores

>boys receive more active discouragement

>fathers are more likely to respond negatively

-Imitation:

>stereotyped roles are displayed in media and the world even if the parents don't display strong preferences

Theoretical Approach to Gender Identity: Cognitive Development Theory

-Kholberg: gender is developed in stages

>gender identity: I am a boy or a girl

>gender stability: I was a boy/girl and I will be a boy/girl in the future

>gender constancy: even if I dress like the opposite sex, I will still be a boy/girl

Theoretical Approach to Gender Identity: Gender Schema Theory:

-Schema: how we organize our understanding of the world

-gender schema: includes sex, expected behaviors, abilities, occupation

>learned from society

>self esteem can be linked to their ability to conform to the schema

Androgyny

-having characteristics of both genders: ex tender and strong

>femininity and masculinity isn't necessarily a dichotomy

>Bem and Lewis see androgyny as adaptive

Development of Sexual Orientation:

-estimates of the prevalence of homosexuality are usually in the 3-5% range, but some researchers have estimated that are 3 to 4 times higher

-often recall being different or engaging in cross-sex-typed behaviors or having cross-sex-typed interests

-having same sex romantic interests leads to sexual questioning, exploring a same sex relationship then adopting the identity

Sexual Orientation and IDentity:

-part of integrating sexual orientation into one's identity involves sharing this identity with others

>acceptance and support is a major factor in adjustment and mental health

>LGBTQ adolescents are less likely to report having an adult to turn to for support->results in lower levels of happiness, high alcohol/drug use, greater likelihood of verbal harassment and physical assault

Ethnic Identity:

-the attitude toward an ethnic group to which you feel you belong

>unexamined

>search

>achieved

-positive ethnic identity is linked with high self esteem, school achievement, positive peer and family relationships

Moral Identity:

-morality is a sense of right and wrong

-starts as external and controlled by others

-behaviorism suggests morality is learned by rewards and punishment

-social cognitive theory says this is combined with imitation

Moral Knowledge:

-understanding the principal endorsed by our culture

Moral Judgment:

-the way people reason about moral issues

>changes along with cognitive development as children grow

Piaget's Stages of Moral Development: Heteronomous Morality

-ages 4-7

-subject to external controls and impositions

-obedience is one value

-immanent justice (if someone steals somethign and then falls off a cliff, falling is punishment for the theft)

Piaget's Stages of Moral Development: Incipient Cooperation

-Ages 7-10

-morality fo cooperations

-justice established between peers, fairness

Piaget's Stages of Moral Development: autonomous morality

-ages 10 and older

-rules are made by people and can be examined for fairness

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: Preconventional

-what's in it for me?

-avoid punishment and get rewards

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: conventional

-internalized societal rules and tries to be good

-extreme circumstance allow for breaking the rules