Chapter 23-28 Study Guide

In the end, Portugal was unable to maintain its early domination of trade because

a. a Chinese resurgence of naval exploration forced the Portuguese out.
b. it was a small country with a small population.

c. the Portuguese tired of the expenses of naval exploration and focused on their European land empire.

d. the English, French, and Dutch formed a lasting alliance designed to force the Portuguese to surrender.

e. a late outbreak of the bubonic plague in the seventeenth century killed half the country's population.

b. it was a small country with a small population.

The first European to sail around the Cape of Good Hope was

a. Bartolomeu Dias.

b. Vasco da Gama.

c. James Cook.

d. Dom Henrique.

e. Christopher Columbus.

a. Bartolomeu Dias.

Which of the following was not a reason for the European interest in finding a maritime trade route?

a. the desire to expand the boundaries of Christianity

b. The spread of the bubonic plague made the silk roads more dangerous.

c. Mongol domination had caused trade along the silk roads to stop
.
d. the high prices charged by Muslim merchants

e. the demand in Europe for items such as Indian pepper and Chinese ginger

c. Mongol domination had caused trade along the silk roads to stop.

Christopher Columbus's decision to sail west to reach Asia was based on

a. secret information on trade routes that he had received indirectly from Chinese sources.

b. legends left over from the earlier Viking voyages.

c. information that he had gathered after inventing his own astrolabe.

d. assistance from an experienced Muslim sailor.

e. his miscalculation of the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan.

e. his miscalculation of the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan.

Lateen sails had the advantage of

a. being cheaper because their basic component was jute.

b. being able to take full advantage of a wind blowing from behind.

c. working better in crosswinds.

d. allowing for faster travel than anything available in the Islamic world.

e. being so colorful that they could be seen from many miles away.

c. working better in crosswinds.

The astrolabe was designed to measure

a. latitude.

b. longitude.

c. velocity.

d. depth.

e. distance.

a. latitude.

The first European nation to dominate trade with Asia was

a. Spain.

b. Portugal.

c. Italy.

d. France.

e. England.

b. Portugal.

Which of the following was not one of the main inspirations for European exploration?

a. the search for basic resources

b. the desire to spread Christianity

c. the search for lands suitable for cultivation

d. the desire to conquer China and India

e. the desire to establish new trade routes to Asian markets

d. the desire to conquer China and India

The Portuguese dominance of trade was dependent on their ability to

a. take advantage of their huge population to overwhelm their adversaries.

b. force merchant ships to call at fortified trading sites and pay duties.

c. form alliances with Chinese princes to take advantage of the large Chinese navy.

d. conquer territories and bring them permanently into their growing empire.

e. force the native populations to convert to Christianity.

b. force merchant ships to call at fortified trading sites and pay duties.

The Portuguese mariner who sailed to Calicut in 1498 was

a. Vasco da Gama.

b. Magellan.

c. Columbus.

d. Cook.

e. Dias.

a. Vasco da Gama.

Russian merchants and explorers began the expansion into Siberia in the quest for

a. iron.

b. silver.

c. gold.

d. copper.

e. furs.

e. furs.

Which of the following was NOT an advantage that the English and Dutch had over the Portuguese?

a. They possessed faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships.

b. They created joint-stock companies.

c. They had much larger populations.

d. They were wealthier countries.

e. They had much better captains.

e. They had much better captains.

The center of the Spanish commercial activity in Asia was

a. Manila.

b. Hawai'i.

c. Melaka.

d. Bombay.

e. Batavia.

a. Manila.

Under Spanish rule of the Philippines, the native population

a. was pressured to convert to Roman Catholicism.

b. followed a classical European north-south Protestant-Catholic geographic split.

c. was allowed to follow their own religious traditions.

d. was encouraged to pursue a syncretic brand of Christianity.
e. converted almost exclusively to Islam.

a. was pressured to convert to Roman Catholicism.

Which of the following men conquered the Moroccan port of Ceuta and sponsored a series of voyages down the west African coast.

a. Henry VIII of England.

b. Henry of Portugal.

c. Christopher Columbus.

d. Suleyman the Magnificent of the Ottoman empire.

e. Francis I of France.

b. Henry of Portugal.

The Portuguese viewed the Atlantic Ocean islands as the perfect location for the cultivation of

a. indigo.

b. sugarcane.

c. citrus fruits.

d. cotton.

e. maize.

b. sugarcane.

Which of the following were both Chinese inventions?

a. magnetic compass and the lateen sail

b. stempost rudder and magnetic compass

c. lateen sail and astrolabe

d. square sail and stempost rudder

e. astrolabe and magnetic compass

b. stempost rudder and magnetic compass

The first circumnavigation of the world was completed in 1522 by

a. Ferdinand Magellan's crew.

b. Ferdinand Magellan.

c. Vasco Nunez de Balboa.

d. Vasco da Gama.

e. Francis Drake.

a. Ferdinand Magellan's crew.

The most prosperous country in Europe in the seventeenth century was

a. Spain.

b. Russia.

c. the Netherlands.

d. France.

e. England.

c. the Netherlands.

During the early modern era, which of the following non-European peoples explored the Indian Ocean?

a. Egyptian

b. Mongols

c. Chinese

d. Japanese

c. Chinese

Which of the following was not one of the policies pursued by Louis XIV?

a. the maintenance of a huge standing army

b. an attempt to make the nobles an active part of the government

c. the promotion of economic development

d. the creation of the palace at Versailles

e. use of the more dependable middle class as officials

b. an attempt to make the nobles an active part of the government

The Council of Trent

a. played a key role in Henry VIII's break with the Catholic church.

b. launched the witch-hunts of the sixteenth century.

c. took steps to reform the Catholic church.

d. successfully reached a compromise in the early Protestant movement between Luther and Calvin.

e. rooted out the Arian heresy.

c. took steps to reform the Catholic church.

Henry VIII's reformation in England

a. was inspired more by John Calvin's thought than by Luther's thought.

b. was based on the ideas of the Anabaptists.

c. made far more profound changes in theology than Luther's reformation did.

d. was much more politically driven than Luther's reformation.

e. ignored Luther and instead pushed for change within Catholic guidelines.

d. was much more politically driven than Luther's reformation.

The Catholic church dramatically pushed the sale of indulgences in the sixteenth century because of the
a. need for Henry VIII to pay off the national debt.
b. need to raise funds for the construction of St. Peter's basilica.
c. threat posed by Islam.
d. expense associated with translating original Greek classics.
e. need to match the resurgence of the Byzantine empire.

c. threat posed by Islam.

"On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" was written by
a. Jonathan Swift.
b. Ptolemy.
c. Isaac Newton.
d. Galileo Galilei.
e. Nicolaus Copernicus.

e. Nicolaus Copernicus.

Charles V was the
a. Spanish king who attempted to invade England in 1588.
b. pope who called the Council of Trent to address abuses in the Catholic church.
c. leader who tried, but failed, to centralize authority in the Holy Roman Empire.
d. Portuguese leader who supported exploration down Africa's west coast.
e. English king who broke with the Catholic church for political reasons.

c. leader who tried, but failed, to centralize authority in the Holy Roman Empire (?)

The theory of universal gravity is associated with
a. Isaac Newton.
b. Nicolaus Copernicus.
c. Denis Diderot.
d. Johannes Kepler.
e. Galileo Galilei.

a. Isaac Newton.

Luther's initial stimulus for formulating the Ninety-Five Theses was
a. his time spent in England during the English Reformation.
b. the turmoil caused by having two popes during the Great Schism.
c. the influence of John Calvin.
d. the sale of indulgences.
e. his excommunication from the Roman Catholic church.

d. the sale of indulgences.

When Voltaire urged his readers to "crush the damned thing," he was talking about
a. capitalism.
b. the atheistic theories of Newton.
c. the church.
d. socialism.
e. the French monarchy.

c. the church.

The author of the Ninety-Five Theses was
a. John Calvin.
b. Henry VIII.
c. Voltaire.
d. Martin Luther.
e. Erasmus.

d. Martin Luther.

The event that inspired Henry VIII to confront the pope was
a. a new English translation of the Bible.
b. Henry's desire to gain a divorce.
c. Henry's belief that the pope was secretly backing the French in the latest war.
d. Henry's frustration with the pope's inability to bring about church reform.
e. Henry's desire to unify all of Europe for a new round of crusades.

b. Henry's desire to gain a divorce.

The Ptolemaic universe was based on
a. a heliocentric structure.
b. the idea that the earth rested on the back of a giant turtle.
c. a motionless earth surrounded by nine hollow spheres.
d. the unifying principle of gravity.
e. the observations of Galileo.

c. a motionless earth surrounded by nine hollow spheres.

The most important consequence of the Peace of Westphalia was
a. promoting the notion that the European nations viewed each other as sovereign and equal.
b. combining the Spanish and French thrones.
c. ending the carnage of the Seven Years' War.
d. establishing an Anglo-French alliance that would last until World War I.
e. laying the foundation for English control of most of the world.

a. promoting the notion that the European nations viewed each other as sovereign and equal.

The Spanish leader who sent an armada against England in 1588 was
a. Philip II.
b. Don Juan.
c. Charles V.
d. Louis XIV.
e. Fernando.

a. Philip II.

Ignatius Loyola was instrumental in
a. calling together the Council of Trent.
b. claiming the Philippines for Spain.
c. making astronomical discoveries that called into question the Ptolemaic universe.
d. creating the Society of Jesus.
e. the formation of Spanish absolutism.

d. creating the Society of Jesus.

Which one of these states did not become a powerful sovereign state during the centuries after 1500?
a. France
b. Holy Roman Empire
c. England
d. Spain
e. Both b and d are correct

b. Holy Roman Empire

In the centuries following the fall of Rome, the only unifying force for all of Europe was
a. the Holy Roman empire.
b. the Auld Alliance.
c. the Catholic church.
d. the Byzantine empire.
e. the Umayyad dynasty.

c. the Catholic church.

Catherine the Great's attempts at reform in Russia were essentially ended by
a. Pugachev's Rebellion.
b. the Great Northern War.
c. the Old Beliefs schism.
d. the English Civil War.
e. the "Time of Troubles."

a. Pugachev's Rebellion.

The most destructive European conflict before the twentieth century was
a. the Hundred Years' War.
b. the Franco-Prussian War.
c. the Thirty Years' War.
d. the Seven Years' War.
e. the War of the Spanish Succession.

c. the Thirty Years' War.

The individual associated with the phrase "l'etat, c'est moi" was
a. Charles V.
b. Charles I.
c. Cardinal Richelieu.
d. Philip II.
e. Louis XIV.

e. Louis XIV.

The first great philosophical proponent of capitalism was
a. Adam Smith.
b. Voltaire.
c. Isaac Newton.
d. Montesquieu.
e. Francis Bacon.

a. Adam Smith.

The fundamental principle of diplomacy in early modem Europe was
a. the balance of power.
b. raison d'etat.
c. French domination.
d. the Auld Alliance.
e. the Anglo-French alliance.

a. the balance of power.

The bloodless change of power in 1688-1689 that ensured representative, constitutional government in England was known as
a. the Glorious Revolution.
b. the Great Charter.
c. the Cromwellian Revolution.
d. the English Civil War.
e. Pride's Purge.

a. the Glorious Revolution.

Which of the following was not a part of Peter the Great's policy of westernization?
a. bureaucratic reform
b. encouraging men to shave their beards
c. sending Russians to western Europe for education
d. political liberalization
e. creating a more modem army

d. political liberalization

The system by which unfinished materials were delivered to rural households for production was known as the
a. union system.
b. guild system.
c. putting-out system.
d. joint-stock company system.
e. countryside system.

c. putting-out system.

The explosion of witch-hunting in the sixteenth century was most probably caused by
a. tensions between Catholics and Protestants.
b. the publication of Copernicus's theories.
c. the fear caused by the prominent role that women were increasingly playing in the Catholic church.
d. a dramatic increase in the practice of demonology.
e. the conquest of Spain by Islamic forces.

a. tensions between Catholics and Protestants.

The Spanish Inquisition was first established in 1478 by
a. Fernando and Isabel.
b. Philip III.
c. Don Carlos.
d. Philip II.
e. Charles V.

a. Fernando and Isabel.

That planetary orbits are elliptical, not circular, was demonstrated by
a. Newton.
b. Kepler.
c. Voltaire.
d. Galileo.
e. Descartes.

b. Kepler.

Which one of the following was not one of Luther's problems with the Roman Catholic church?
a. the selling of indulgences
b. the church's decision to translate the Bible into vernacular languages
c. pluralism
d. the immense wealth of the Catholic church
e. absenteeism

b. the church's decision to translate the Bible into vernacular languages

The religious struggle in the Dutch provinces finally resulted in
a. a total Protestant victory.
b. the loss of Dutch independence to Spanish control.
c. a total Catholic victory.
d. a compromise wherein the king remained Catholic but the Protestants enjoyed guaranteed civil rights.
e. a geographic split between the Protestant north and the Catholic south.

b. the loss of Dutch independence to Spanish control.

Versailles was the magnificent royal palace of
a. Peter the Great.
b. Frederick the Great.
c. Charles I.
d. Francis I.
e. Louis XIV.

e. Louis XIV.

The architect of absolutism was
a. Louis XVIII.
b. Cardinal Richelieu.
c. John Locke.
d. Charles II.
e. Montesquieu.

b. Cardinal Richelieu.

Ninety-five percent of the condemned witches were
a. women.
b. Protestants.
c. Muslims.
d. Catholics.
e. men.

a. women.

Who said, "I cannot and will not recant anything, for it is neither safe nor right to act against one's conscience. Here I stand. I can do no other."
a. Henry VIII
b. John Calvin
c. Jesus
d. Martin Luther
e. Sima Qian

d. Martin Luther

The two centers of Spanish royal authority in the Americas were
a. Cuzco and Tehnochtitlan.
b. Mexico City and Cuzco.
c. Tenochtitlan and Mexico City.
d. Lima and Mexico City.
e. Lima and Chanchan.

d. Lima and Mexico City.

The first plentiful labor force for North America was
a. metis purchased from Canada.
b. African slaves.
c. native Americans who worked as part of a complicated barter system.
d. indentured servants.
e. peninsulares from South America.

d. indentured servants.

The first people of the Americas to come into contact with the Spanish were the
a. Aztecs.
b. Maya.
c. Inca.
d. Chimu.
e. Tainos.

e. Tainos.

In 1779, the English explorer Captain James Cook died during a violent confrontation in
a. Peru.
b. Guam.
c. New Zealand.
d. Hawai'i.
e. Australia.

d. Hawai'i.

The last emperor of the Aztec empire was
a. Motecuzorna II.
b. Motecuzoma I.
c. Atahualpa.
d. Itzcoatl.
e. Topa.

a. Motecuzorna II.

The most important factor in explaining the Spanish victory over the Aztecs and Incas was
a. the Spanish strength in numbers.
b. the military precision of the well-trained Spanish troops.
c. the devastating loss of life caused by European-borne diseases.
d. the overwhelming Spanish superiority in guns and cannons.
e. the Spanish alliance with the Maya.

c. the devastating loss of life caused by European-borne diseases.

Which of the following was not a difference between the Spanish approach to colonization and that of the English and French?
a. The Spanish saw the Americas as a land to exploit rather than one to settle or colonize.
b. The English and French viewed the indigenous populations as their equals.
c. Private investors played a much greater role in the English and French approach.
d. Iberian explorers had royal backing.
e. The English and French did not encounter large, centralized states.

d. Iberian explorers had royal backing.

The chief Spanish royal administrators in the Americas were
a. the conquistadors.
b. the haciendas.
c. the encomiendas.
d. the peninsulares.
e. the viceroys.

e. the viceroys.

The Treaty of Tordesillas
a. ended the English practice of raiding Spanish treasure galleons.
b. split Central and South America between Spain and Portugal.
c. granted England control over Australia.
d. ended the Seven Years' War.
e. limited Spanish northern expansion at modem-day Florida.

b. split Central and South America between Spain and Portugal.

The English colony of Jamestown
a. was burned to the ground during a French invasion.
b. was wildly successful and quickly recouped the original financial investment.
c. mysteriously disappeared during a period when the English were too busy to send aid.
d. was nearly destroyed due to mass starvation.
e. served as a remarkably satisfactory location for the Puritans.

d. was nearly destroyed due to mass starvation.

The first great American cash crop, exported initially from Virginia, was
a. indigo.
b. maize.
c. rice.
d. tobacco.
e. wheat.

d. tobacco.

When the Spanish invaded the Aztec empire,
a. the subject tribes of the empire remained faithful to the Aztecs.
b. many of the subject tribes formed alliances with the Spanish.
c. the subject tribes fled south for Inca protection.
d. they were emboldened by their previous easy conquest of the Inca.
e. they were interested in gaining control of tobacco as a profitable cash crop.

b. many of the subject tribes formed alliances with the Spanish.

The conquistador who conquered the Inca was
a. Balboa.
b. Cortes.
c. Cabral.
d. Magellan.
e. Pizarro.

e. Pizarro.

Which of the following sites in North America was originally a Dutch colony?
a. Port Royal
b. Quebec
c. Plymouth
d. Jamestown
e. New York

e. New York

In North America the Europeans initially found a profitable commodity when they bartered for
a. molasses.
b. tobacco.
c. fur.
d. indigo.
e. maize.

c. fur.

Which of the following was NOT true of the American Indians that the English and French came into contact with?
a. The Indians lived in dozens of distinct societies.
b. The North American Indians did not live in densely populated areas.
c. The North American Indians did not have large, centralized states like the Aztecs and Inca.
d. The Indians guarded their claims to private ownership of land even more jealously than the Europeans did.
e. The Indians practiced agriculture, but moved frequently in pursuit of game.

d. The Indians guarded their claims to private ownership of land even more jealously than the Europeans did.

For the Spanish, the greatest attraction of the Americas was
a. sugar.
b. slaves.
c. tobacco.
d. precious metals.
e. a new class of trading partners to buy Spanish manufactured goods.

d. precious metals.

The British initially made use of Australia
a. as a busy port on the route from Acapulco to Manila.
b. because of its rich silver mines.
c. as a tourist retreat.
d. because of its extraordinary agricultural abundance.
e. as a penal colony.

e. as a penal colony.

The conquistadores
a. eventually lost control and were replaced by formal rule by the Spanish crown.
b. in turn were defeated by French forces.
c. lost control because of a bloody battle between the forces of Cortes and Pizarro.
d. established empires in Central and South America that lasted until the eighteenth century.
e. eventually died of the very same smallpox that they had unwittingly introduced to the Americas.

a. eventually lost control and were replaced by formal rule by the Spanish crown.

Hernan Cortes was responsible for the conquest of the
a. Tainos.
b. Moche.
c. Aztecs.
d. Inca.
e. Chimu.

c. Aztecs.

To provide labor for their sugar plantations, the Portuguese
a. copied the Spanish repartimiento system.
b. made extensive use of indentured servants.
c. relied on imported African slaves as laborers.
d. offered higher wages than their Spanish counterparts did.
e. copied the Spanish encomiendas.

c. relied on imported African slaves as laborers.

Which of the following are methods of resistance to Spanish rule employed by the native populations of the Americas?
a. rebellion
b. halfhearted work
c. hiding from the Spanish in mountains and forests
d. all of the above

d. all of the above

The encomenderos were
a. Spanish settlers.
b. Aztec priests who viewed the Spanish as visiting gods.
c. the Spanish administrative officials who ruled over the colonies and reported back to Spain.
d. individuals of indigenous and European parentage.
e. the first society of the Americas to come into contact with the Spanish.

a. Spanish settlers.

Dona Marina was
a. a Mexican woman who aided Cortes in his conquest of the Aztecs.
b. the leading Spanish banker who funded exploration.
c. the nautical term for the dominant westerly wind that made voyages to the Americas faster.
d. the Portuguese explorer who first sighted Australia.
e. the first viceroy of the Spanish colonies in the Americas.

a. a Mexican woman who aided Cortes in his conquest of the Aztecs.

Spanish migrants who were born in Europe were known as
a. peninsulares.
b. encomiendas.
c. mestizos.
d. mulattoes.
e. zambos.

a. peninsulares.

The English, French, and Dutch
a. discovered gold and silver mines that rivaled the Spanish claims.
b. were more interested in setting up permanent colonies than the Spanish.
c. never showed any serious interest in the Americas.
d. were like the Spanish in that they viewed the Americas as a land to exploit rather than a place to settle.
e. did not play a role in the Americas until the mid-18th century.

b. were more interested in setting up permanent colonies than the Spanish.

By the 17th century, the most prominent site of agriculture in Spanish America was the
a. metis.
b. quinto.
c. zambo.
d. hacienda.
e. repartimiento.

d. hacienda.

The Portuguese began to show much more interest in Brazil
a. after the discovery of rich gold and silver mines.
b. after a Spanish military loss to France removed Spain as a serious rival for control of Brazil.
c. after brazilwood became a major cash crop.
d. after the English victory over the Spanish Armada.
e. after the establishment of profitable sugar plantations.

e. after the establishment of profitable sugar plantations.

The term "mestizo" refers to
a. the coins that were used in the Aztec empire.
b. an individual of indigenous and European parentage.
c. the Spanish plantations on which millions of Central and South Americans were enslaved.
d. the percentage of silver that went to the Spanish government.
e. the Aztec term for the mysterious disease that devastated their population.

b. an individual of indigenous and European parentage.

The Virgin of Guadalupe essentially became a national symbol for
a. Mexico.
b. Peru.
c. Brazil.
d. Chile.
e. Argentina.

a. Mexico.

Christopher Columbus's first plan was
a. to plunder the legendary wealth of the Aztecs.
b. to form an alliance with the Aztecs against the Inca.
c. to form an alliance with the French before attacking the Tainos.
d. to build trading posts where merchants could trade with the local population.
e. to subjugate the native population as a slave race for the Spanish.

d. to build trading posts where merchants could trade with the local population.

The last emperor of the Inca empire was
a. Viracocha.
b. Atahualpa.
c. Topa Inca.
d. Motecuzoma II.
e. Pachakuti.

b. Atahualpa.

The vast majority of slaves
a. died during the middle passage.
b. provided agricultural labor on plantations.
c. were trained for simple, bureaucratic work
d. were employed in the mines of Central and South America.
e. became domestic servants.

b. provided agricultural labor on plantations.

A trading post was built at Cape Town in 1652 by the
a. French.
b. Russians.
c. Dutch.
d. Portuguese.
e. English.

c. Dutch.

The only place where a slave revolt actually brought about an end to slavery was
a. Peru.
b. Cuba.
c. Saint-Domingue.
d. Brazil.
e. Virginia.

c. Saint-Domingue.

An alliance with Portugal brought wealth and foreign recognition to Kongo, as well as
a. a diplomatic connection to the Spanish.
b. a later alliance with the English.
c. an inroad into European politics.
d. the right to limit the slave trade.
e. the eventual destruction of the kingdom.

e. the eventual destruction of the kingdom.

The most important early city in the Songhay empire was
a. Kilwa.
b. Timbuktu.
c. Gao.
d. Jenne.
e. Mali.

c. Gao.

How many Africans were forcefully brought to the Americas as part of the trans-Atlantic slave trade?
a. 2 million
b. 1 million.
c. 12 million
d. 4 million
e. less than 1 million

c. 12 million

Throughout the entire period of trans-Atlantic slavery, the mortality rate for the middle passage was
a. 10%.
b. 60%.
c. 25%.
d. 50%.
e. 3%.

c. 25%.

The center of Islamic learning in west Africa was
a. Jenne.
b. Gao.
c. Timbuktu.
d. Mbanza.
e. Kilwa.

c. Timbuktu.

The heaviest slave trading took place in the
a. 16th century.
b. 17th century.
c. 19th century.
d. 18th century.
e. 15th century.

d. 18th century.

The first European nation to abolish the slave trade was
a. Portugal.
b. France.
c. England.
d. Spain.
e. Denmark.

e. Denmark.

The rise in maritime trade in the early modern era in Africa
a. resulted in regional kingdoms replacing the imperial states of west Africa.
b. resulted in a new pattern in which the village became the principal political entity.
c. led to the consolidation in the largest imperial states in African history.
d. ironically led to a decrease in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
e. led to political chaos and the destruction of traditional African balance of power.

a. resulted in regional kingdoms replacing the imperial states of west Africa.

Islam was most popular in sub-Saharan Africa in
a. areas that had forsaken the traditional religions because of famine or plague.
b. the commercial centers of west Africa and the Swahili city-states.
c. areas that had previously had contact with Christian missionaries.
d. poor areas where the payment for conversion had the greatest appeal.
e. the thinly populated rural areas.

b. the commercial centers of west Africa and the Swahili city-states.

As part of the triangular slave trade, the Europeans usually picked up slaves in Africa in return for
a. silver from the Americas.
b. European technological innovations.
c. firearms.
d. sugar or molasses.
e. indentured servants.

c. firearms (?)

Islam and Christianity usually spread into sub-Saharan Africa
a. solely because of military conquest.
b. as an uneasy and cumbersome mixture of Islamic and Christian concepts.
c. because of the failure of Judaism to capture a larger audience.
d. as syncretic versions of the originals.
e. as religions picked up by runaway slaves.

d. as syncretic versions of the originals.