AP comp gov UK case study

United Kingdom

came into official use in 1801 with the acts of union, which united the kingdoms of great britain and ireland. Britain itself had undergone its own act of union in 1707 by uniting the crowns of England, Wales, and Scotland (England and Wales had united in 1536). When the republic of ireland was granted independence in the 1920s, the united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland was the official name.

The Crown/Monarchy

British citizens owe their allegiance to the Crown,the enduring symbol of the United Kingdom's state, rather than to a singular written constitution. The Crown symbolizes far more than just the monarchy or even His Majesty's Government-it represents the ceremonial and symbolic trappings of the British State. In addition it represents the rules governing British political life (the regime) and the unhindered capacity (the sovereignty) to enforce and administer these rules and to secure the country's borders. These evolutionary changes of the state over the past 800 years have been thoroughgoing and not without violence-but unlike so much of the world where this has been volatile the development of the modern British state has been gradual, piecemeal, and peaceful.

Anglo-Saxon Legacy

they left their language in England but not Scotland and Wales, which they were unable to conquer. Local languages remained dominant in Wales, Scotland, and northern Ireland until the 18th and 19th centuries. The UK experienced repeated invasions over a period of about 1500 years. The Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes, and finally Normans invaded British isles each leaving important legacies.

Celtic Fringe

The area's on Britain's northern and western perimeter

Common Law/Precedent

As part of the UK's political development, another important legacy was the emergence of common law, a system based on local customs and precedent rather than formal legal codes. In a common law system, judges make decisions by applying a precedent, a previous written decision that establishes a rule to be applied in similar cases in the future. Common law systems can enhance the rule of law because the facts, issues, decisions, and rulings are written down, creating a sense of predictability- it also implies that no one is above the law. That system forms the basis of the contemporary legal systems of the United Kingdom with some exceptions in Scotland, the United States, and many former British colonies.

Norman Legacy

The last wave of invasions occurred in 1066 led by William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy in northern France. The Normons themselves weren't 'French' per se, as they were a blend of Danish Vikings and Franks that had settled along the northern coast of the English Channel. In Britain, they imposed a far more centralized system of feudalism where the central monarchy controlled the sometimes rebellious and independent local nobility. Yet, over time, feudalism did begin a process of the devolution of authority and created a system of mutual obligation between lord and peasant on one level and between lord and monarch on another.

Magna Carta

The most important document in the early modern period in British political history is the Magna Carta, which nobles forced King JOhn to sign in 1215. The Magna Carta became a royal promise to uphold feudal customs and the rights of English barons. It set an important precedent by limiting the power of English monarchs and subjecting them to rule of law. As a result, the United Kingdom never experienced the type of royal absolutism that was common in other countries ( like the Tsars of Russia) and this in turn helped them pave the way for eventual public control over government and the state. Parliament evolved from yearly parleys of nobles and later middle class merchants, when the king would ask for taxation.

Church of England

During the reign of Henry VII (1509-1547), a major dispute arose between the English monarch and the ROman Catholic Church. When the pope failed to grant Henry a divorce, he used parliament to pass laws that effectively took England out of the Catholic Church and replaced Catholicism with a Protestant church that could be controlled by the English state instead of Rome. The creation of a state controlled Anglican church led to a religious institution that was weaker and less autonomous than its counterparts in other European countries. Supporters of Catholicism fought unsuccessfully to regain power and religion never plagued the UK as a polarizing force the way it did in so many other countries, (Northern Ireland in the 20th century being a very bloody exception.

Petition of Right

In 1628, Parliament forced Charles 1 to sign the Petition of Right, which further limited the kings authority. It not only confirmed Parliament's control over taxation, but forbade the king to quarter soldiers in private homes, required due process in legal proceedings, and essentially said that the king was not above the law

English Civil War

The rise of the Stuart Monarchy in 1603 after the death of Elizabeth 1 (tudor) paved the way for the union of England and Scotland. But the absolutist Stuart kings James 1 and Charles 1 clashed openly with Parliament over issues of power, religion, and taxation. BY 1642, the English Civil War exploded between King and Parliament, resulting in the execution of Charles 1 in 1649 and a military dictatorship by Oliver Cromwell through 1660.

Glorious Revolution

After Cromwell's brutal dictatorship ended, the people of England wanted nothing more than a full restoration of the Stuart monarchy in Charles II. Yet, under Charles II's successor James II< the monarchy and Parliament again faced off. James was openly Catholic and Parliament feared a return to Catholicism and absolute monarchy. In 1688, it removed James II and sent him into exile- in his place it installed James' Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William III of Orange (Dutch Republic). This was called the "Glorious" revolution in that it was comparatively bloodless.

English Bill of Rights

A year after the Glorious Revolution, parliament enacted the English BIll of Rights, institutionalizing for the first time Parliament's political supremacy and marking a devolution of authority from the monarch, who since that time have owed their position to Parliament. It effectively created England as a constitutional monarchy.

Robert Walpole

After the death of the last Stuart monarch Queen Anne, Parliament installed the House of Hanover in George 1. The German born monarch, who spoke little English was forced to rely heavily on his royal ministers. The emergence of Robert Walpole as the chief of his ministers is later fashioned into the position of Prime Minister, who coordinated the work of other ministers into targeted cabinets-war, treasury, foreign affairs, etc.

Cabinet System

By the end of the 18th century, largely in reaction to the American Revolution, prime ministers and their cabinets were no longer selected by monarchs but were instead appointed by Parliament.

Limited Monarchy

Compared with its European neighbors, he UK had a more constrained monarchy. This is not to say that British rulers were weak, but in addition to the early checks on monarchical rule, three major developments in the 17th and 18th centuries decisively undermined the power of British sovereigns and are crucial for our understanding of why the United Kingdom was one of the first nations to develop democratic control.

British Empire and Colonial Legacy

The UK began its overseas expansion in the 16th Century and by the mid-19th Century, had vanquished its main European rivals to become the world's dominant military, commercial, and cultural power. Its navy helped open new overseas markets for its explosive domestic industry, and by the British Empire's zenith in 1870, the United Kingdom controlled about a quarter of all world trade and had the globe's wealthiest economy. The dimensions of the British Empire were truly exceptional- even if it was more piecemeal in control than most traditional empires, it governed one quarter of the world's population by 1870 and directly ruled close to 50 countries. It dominated many more with its commercial muscle. Paralleling the gradual process of democratization in the UK, the erosion of the British Empire was slow and incremental. The World Wars were disastrous for Britain on many levels as they were replaced by upstart powers like the United States as superpowers. Following World War I, the UK granted independence to a few of its former holdings including Egypt and Ireland. With the conclusion of WWII, however, the tide turned even more strongly against the Empire as local resistance/nationalism in many colonies, international sentiment favoring self determination for subject people, and the cumulative costs of two world wars made it impossible to maintain its far flung empires. Independence was eventually granted to most of the remaining possessions in Africa SE Asia, and the Caribbean.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The UK lays claim to being the first industrial economy and it clearly helped support the expansion of the Empire. By the mid-19th century, most of the UK's workforce had moved away from the countryside to live in urban areas. While it dramatically changed British politics and society, it shielded them from the instability and revolution that plagued many of its counterparts that went through a far more sudden industrialization. Moreover, the rise of a prosperous middle class demanding a stronger political voice facilitated the country's steps toward democracy. This industrialization has been more of an obstacle post-WW2 as the British economy has struggled to find an identity in the competition against the United States and competitors in Asia.

Whigs/Liberals

The first changes with the emergence of political parties in the late 17th Century. The two largest cliques, later parties, were the Whigs and Tories. The Whigs opposed the king. Eventually the Whigs began to cultivate support among members of the industrial middle class who were excluded from the traditional political system.

Tories (Conservatives)

The tories supported the king

Gradualism/ Gradual Democratization

Another factor in democratization was the expansion of suffrage. While the continent of Europe exploded in multiple revolutionary years in 1830 and 1848, the British government gradually extended the right to vote with Reform Acts in 1832 (to the industrial middle class), 1867 (industrial working class), 1884(all men), and 1920 (women). The gradual expansion of the right to vote to include all adult citizens forced political parties to respond to all demands for additional services. New voters wanted the expansion of such public goods as improved working conditions, health care, education, and housing and they looked to the state to provide them.

Labour Party

formed in 1900 by Keir Hardie as an outgrowth of the labor union movement, had become by the end of WWI the main representative of the working class and the primary beneficiary of expanded suffrage. By the 1920s, Labour had replaced the Liberal party as the second party and began to push for basic social services provided by the government for all citizens, or what we commonly call the social welfare state. British workers who defended the UK so heroically during the Second World War returned from that conflict with a new sense of entitlement, electing Labour to majority power for the first time in 1945. The Labor Government of o=Clement Atlee quickly moved to implement a welfare state and nationalized a number of sectors of industry, including coal, utilities, rail, and health care.

Margaret Thatcher

The first female prime minister in 1979m she broke with traditional tory support for what she attacked as the UK's nanny state and pledged to diminish the government's role in the economy. She lowered taxes and cut state spending on costly social services and she privatized many services in housing and mass transit.

Tony Blair and New Labour

Tony Blaie was the Labour Party leader, and he sought to rebrand the party as "new"labour, and distinguish his government's third way centrist program from both Thatcher's hard edged laissez-faire policies and Labour's more traditional platform as a staunch defender of an elaborate welfare state. New Labour and Blair held the government for 13 years, balancing popular progressive social reforms with policies of devolution and continued limits of social expenditures.

2010 Hung Parliament

the 2010 general election resulted in a hung parliament, in which no party obtained a majority of seats. The Conservatives, under David Cameron, won 306 seats (of 650) in the House of Commons, but fell short of the required "majority plus one" 326. Thus, Cameron and the Conservatives formed a coalition government with the center-left liberal democrats, calling for "fairness" but also freedom and responsibility.

David Cameron

Member of the house of lords of the united kingdom. Hee struggled with controversial issues involving national identity, and the devolution of state sovereignty both at home and abroad. In 2014, parliament authorized Scotland to hold a referendum on the question of independence from the UK, with Cameron leading the successful effort to reject independence to retain Scotland.

Brexit

Yet, two years later, Cameron shockingly failed in his attempt to maintain Britain's status as a member of the European Union with the Brexit vote of 2016. In the case of Brexit, those favoring an exit from the EU and greater sovereignty for Britain prevailed, forcing Cameron's resignation and triggering the long process of Britain's departure from the EU, of which it had spent four decades as a critical part.

Theresa May

Cameron was succeeded by new Tory Party Leader Theresa May who struggled to navigate the Brexit results through Parliament. May failed on three occasions to persuade Parliament to pass feals to officially leave the EU and she resigned after her third failure in 2019. She was replaced by the controversial former mayor of London and huge supporter of Brexit since its inception, Boris Johnson.

2017 Snap Election

May made a massive miscalculation in calling for a snap election in 2017 following the Brexit results, thinking that it would trigger a greater number of Conservative MPs. In fact, the conservatives lost seats and another hung parliament occurred.

Boris Johnson

Boris Johnson's outlandish, somewhat Populist message resonated with voters far more than May and resulted in a Conservative majority in 2020. With a majority in Parliament, the EU withdrawal agreement was finally passed, triggering the formal departure in late January of 2020. In practice, however, this was incredibly difficult-for over a year, the UK and the EU engaged in extensive and detailed negotiations to iron out deals covering not just trade arrangements, but also agreements concerning security, transportation, citizenship, and residency requirements, and a host of other details. Meanwhile, Covid was devastating for the British economy, and Johnson was forced into resignation due to a number of political scandals he was attached to in 2022.

Liz Truss

After Boris's downfall, Liz Truss became the new Conservative Party leader and Prime minister. Truss was soon beleaguered by an inadequate Covid response, massive economic problems, and general dissatisfaction that had been building during the last months of Boris Johnson. Truss, who had a host of enemies within her own party, resigned after only 50 days in favor of Rishi Sunak.

Rishi Sunak

Rishi Sunak became the first Asian British prime minister, which he maintained until the 2024 General Election, which saw the first Labour Party victory in 17 years.

Parliamentary System

The UK has a parliamentary system government, with fusion of power between the executive and legislative branches

Head of State/Head of Government

There is a separate head of state and head of government. Although the UK still has a monarch, the position is largely ceremonial. A symbol of national identity. Officially, the monarch names the prime minister, but he or she has no authority to reject the prime minister, who is chosen by the majority party in the house of commons.

House of Lords

senate; has currently 799 members-this is not a fixed number. Most of its members are appointed by the monarch, on recommendation of the PM and a commission of lords. This is a life term. Has the power to review and amend bills passed by the House of Commons. The House of Lords may delay budgetary bills for up to a month and other legislation for up to a year.

House of Commons

house of representative; has 650 members-it is the lower house, yet it is by far the more powerful in policy making. It has the power to debate and pass legislation, approve the budget, hold committee hearings, and formally question the Prime Minister. Members of the House of Commons run in districts based on population. They are elected in a plurality single member districts (SMD) system-the candidate who wins the most votes the seat. The house of commons can reject suggested amendments and the house of lords cannot prevent the house of commons from eventually passing bills into laws.

Selection of Prime Minister

the monarch names the Prime Minister. The UK's Prime Minister, who serves as head of government, oversees the House of Commons and is considered to be one of the most powerful democratic executives in the world. The PM is first elected as a member of Parliament in the House of Commons. Parties run leaders in safe districts where the party is overwhelmingly favored to win the seat. MPs are not required to live in the district they represent, although they usually do. The candidates for PM are announced by their parties before elections, so a vote for a party is also an indirect vote for the Prime Minister. After the election, the party that wins more than 50% of the vote selects the PM. If no party wins the 50% threshold, the party that earned the most votes will form a coalition with a smaller party so that together they control the majority of the seats. This "hung Parliament" occurred recently in both 2010 and 2017.

Removal of Prime Minister

there are three ways a PM can be removed from office:

1.He or she could lose the popular vote for a seat as an MP in Parliament. This is the least likely, only happening once in 1906. 2. He could be removed as party leader due to unpopularity. This is the most common way and is usually avoided by resignation prior to their actual removal. 3. He or she could be removed through a vote of no confidence. The majority party or opposing party can call for a vote of no confidence- this can happen after a major piece of legislation supported by the PM and cabinet fails. This is relatively uncommon because of the strength of party discipline (rigid adherence to party). Coalition governments are more likely to see votes of no confidence. The last PM removed by a vote of no confidence was in 1979.

House of Lords Reform Act of 1999

most peers lost their hereditary seats. 92 hereditary peerage seats remain.

Prime Minister Question Time

Parliament has long served an important oversight/ watchdog function - the PM must attend parliament weekly for question time, a very lively televised debate among leading politicians and MPs of Parliament.During this time, the PM is expected to respond to question from Mps from all parties (including his or her own) and must be prepared to defend the government's policies. In addition, MPs have the right to question cabinet members about the activities of their departments, who must respond personally in Parliament. This is an opportunity for the public to learn about issues of concern, both large and small. It provides most importantly transparency and accountability.

Judicial system

The UK has a common-law system in which written judicial opinions serve as precedent for future cases. This enhances rules of law by ensuring the law is applied consistently and that no one is above the law.

UK Supreme Court

In 2009, a separate Supreme Court was established- before this, Law Lords in the upper house served as the highest officials in the judiciary. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the monarch based on a referral by the Prime Minister, following the recommendation of an independent judicial selection committee. Appointments are based on merit and candidates have previously served in high judicial office. The UK Supreme Court does not have the power of judicial review. Thus it cannot overturn laws of parliament. Yet it can overturn government actions that violate civil rights and liberties. It also has the power to rule on disputes concerning devolution of power between the national government and regional assemblies in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Supreme Court was established to create a separation of power between the judiciary and the fused executive and legislature. The supreme court proves the court system with more independence and increases the government transparency, enhancing rule of law.

Liberal Democrats

Their ideology is centre-left, social democracy, and democratic socialism. The key issues are focusing on workers rights, wealth redistribution, public services ( especially healthcare and education), and social justice. Historically, the Labour Party has been associated with trade unions and progressive taxation.

Scottish National Party (SNP)

Their ideology is centre left, Scottish independence, and social democracy. The key issues are advocating for Scottish independence, progressive social policies, and environmental sustainability. It focuses on strengthening the Scottish Parliament's powers and improving social welfare.

Green Party

Their ideology is left wing, environmentalism, social justice. The key issues are climate change sustainability, social equality, wealth redistribution, and creating a fairer society. The party advocates for transitioning to a green economy and radical environmental policies.

Plaid Cymru

Their ideology is centre-left, welsh independence, social democracy. The key issues are advocating for the independence of Wales, greater cultural preservation,social welfare policies, sustainability and environment. It supports Welsh Language promotion and increased autonomy for Wales.

Ulster Unionist Party

Their ideology is Centre-right, unionism, liberal conservatism. The key issues are support for Northern Ireland remaining a part of the United Kingdom and a commitment to preserving unionist values. It advocated for a more moderate, pragmatic approach to governance in Northern Ireland.

Reform UK/UKIP party

Their ideology is right wing, euroscepticism, and economic liberalism. The key issues are initially founded as the Brexit Party, it advocates for a more radical approach to Brexit, limiting the size of the state, deregulation, and a free market economy. It focuses on reforming the UK's political and economic systems.

Confederation of British Industries (CBI) and Trades Union Congress (TUC)

n the UK business and labor are each represented by one major association- the CBI business and the TUC. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Labour Party consulted regularly and formally with both the CBI and the TUC to set wages and other economic policies. The limited ability of both groups to control their own members from striking led to Labour's defeat in 1979 and the rise of Margaret Thatcher.

Shift from Corporatist to Pluralist

Until 1979, the UK maintained a corporatist interest group system- certain large interest groups are sanctioned by the government and are included in the policy making process. Thatcher immediately ended the corporatist arrangements and largely shunned the TUC and ignored the CBI in favor of the advice and support of conservative think tanks. This caused a shift to a pluralist system, but not nearly as complex as that of the United States. Interest groups focus more on lobbying the executive branch.

Referendums

votes on a policy issue sent by the government to the people- happen more frequently in the UK than other western nations. Referendums give citizens political efficacy and strengthen legitimacy. Yet its important to understand that the government does not have to abide by referendum results because of parliamentary sovereignty. In theory the PM and the rest of the government could decide to ignore a referendum- yet this would be a dangerous political game because they could risk losing the next election.

2016 Brexit Referendim

For example, the difficulty of Brexit- the referendum itself took place in 2016, yet it took 4 years and multiple PM changes to finally pass through parliament.

2011 Alternate voting referendum

In 2011, voters rejected a referendum that would have changed the method for electing members of Parliament to an alternate ranking system- this was largely advocated by the Liberal Democrats. Voters rejected it with 68% of the vote. Keeping the usually SMD system.

1997 Scotland Regional Referendum

n 1997, regional referendums were sent to voters in Scotland and Wales, who approved the creation of regional assemblies as a part of the central government's devolution plan.

1998 Good Friday Accords

In 1998, Tony Blair helped to broker the Good Friday Agreement, peace agreement that helped to resolve the conflict in Northern Ireland by establishing a devolved government, promoting cooperation between Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, and the UK, and addressing issues related to identity, governance, and human rights.

2014 Scot Independence Referendum

:In 2014, a referendum was sent to voters in Scotland about whether to establish an independent Scotland-it was rejected 55% to 45%. The Scot regional assembly asked for a second referendum in 2023 and it was denied by the UK Supreme Court, stating they didn't have the authority to ask for such a referendum.

Civil Liberties in UK

the unwritten constitution of the United Kingdom provides for the full protection of civil rights and civil liberties. In addition to national laws, regional assemblies have also passed legislation protecting human rights. People have civil liberties such as freedom of expression, including speech, assembly, and the press. The UL does not restrict access to the internet/social media or censor content, although hate speech is banned. Although the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is state funded, it is guaranteed independence from government intervention. Workers are free to organize and form labor unions. Citizens are free to practice their religious beliefs, even though the church of England is the official state religion. Although 26 members of the House of Lords are high ranking clergy, the church is not actively involved in policymaking.

Civil Rights in UK

Women, ethnic, and religious minorities, the disabled, and LGBTQ persons are guaranteed equal treatment under the law and protected from discrimination. The law criminalizes rape, domestic violence, and femaile genital mutilation. Sexual harassment is a criminal offense in the UK. There are also laws against child abuse, child and sex trafficking, and forced labor.

Female Genitalia Mutilation (FGM)

occured in some refugee and immigrant communities. Laws require medical professionals to report FGM to authorities.

Discrimination in UK

Even though the UK fully protects human rights under the law, members of minority religious and ethnic groups have been targeted for violence and discrimination. There has been an uptick in anti-semitism over the past decade, especially with vandalism/desecration of Jewish property and online threats and hate speech. Yet its the mistreatment and discrimination of the UK's non-whyite population, especially persons of romani, middle easter, african, afro-caribbean, and south asian that have seen decades of abuse rooted in the UK's colonial past.

"Right to Rent" Laws

require landlords in England to verify the legal immigration status of their tenants, even though the UK Supreme Court rules this as discriminatory.

Oxbridge

The British have long recognized class differences as a significant component of their society. Even though the British were one of the first nations to put some importance on its developing middle class, the UK is one of the only countries in Europe to still have a recognized nobility/peerage. Private boarding schools like Eton were once the exclusive home for children of nobility to prepare them for Oxbridge (Cambridge or Oxford) the elite schools.

Ethnic Cleavages

Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland all have their own language and culture from other parts of the UK. Furthermore, 45% of people living in Northern Ireland are Catholic. In recent polls, 51% of those living in Northern Ireland support reunification with the Republic of Ireland. Power has been devolved to local assemblies in the region and they have been given significant policymaking authority. For example, Scotland runs its own health service. The question remains whether devolution has done enough to satisfy secessionist movements. The Scottish Nationalist Party (SNP) favors independence from the UK and Scotland overwhelmingly voted against Brexit (as did Northern Ireland). In 2000, the Wales Assembly passed a measure requiring all schools to teach the Welsh language alongside English. All National Health Services must be given in both Welsh and English in Wales.

Regulated Market Economy

in which wages, prices, and production are mostly set by supply and demand, with some government regulation, and mostly private control of businesses and natural resources. In the past two decades, Britain's economy has been on a boom and bust trajectory. The Conservatives have responded with austerity measures since 2010. The government also raised the retirement age from 60 for women/65 for men to 66 for all Britons in 2006 and plan to raise it to 68 by 2026. The government also required those on long term unemployment benefits to actively seek work and capped unemployment benefits at one year.

National Heal System (NHS)

One of the few things that survived the Conservative privatization during the Thatcher (and post-Thatcher) years was the National Health Service. The NHS traditionally functioned like one giant managed-care system. It signed contracts with general practitioners (GPs) in each region of the country to deliver primary services to patients. British patients can sign up with the GP of their choice, usually in their neighborhood, who provides basic care and functions as a gatekeeper, referring them to a specialist or hospital when necessary. Most services are free to the patient, having been paid by general taxes. The regional GP concept was replaced in 2012 by groups of general practitioners. Even though this saved money (in a system that is facing a funding crisis), it has resulted in even longer wait times.