learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to our experiences
habituation
our tendency to pay less attention to a stimulus the more times we have been exposed to it
associative learning
learning to associate two events with each other
stimulus
any situation or sensory experience that causes a response
cognitive learning
learning new information through language or observation
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we learn to link two stimuli together
behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science and therefore focus only on observable behaviors, and not unobservable mental processes
neutral stimulus (NS)
before conditioning takes place, this is a stimulus that produces no response (e.g. the bell)
unconditioned response (UR)
an automatic, unlearned behavior caused by a stimulus (e.g. drooling)
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that causes an automatic, unlearned response (e.g. food)
conditioned response (CR)
the same behavior as the UR, but now caused by the CS instead of the US (e.g. drooling to the bell)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a stimulus that provoked no response before conditioning, but now provokes a response because conditioning has occurred (e.g. the bell)
acquisition
the stage in which we learn to associate two stimuli together and develop a CR
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the CS is paired with a new NS until the new NS also becomes a CS
extinction
occurs when a CR no longer occurs because the CS has been presented repeatedly without the US
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinct CR
generalization
the tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to also produce a CR
discrimination
the ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli similar to the CS; no CR occurs with the similar stimulus
taste aversions
a type of classical conditioning where we associate the taste of a food with the (usually negative) symptoms it causes
instinctive drift
the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response
operant conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
operant chamber
a chamber (aka Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can push to obtain a reinforcer; the device records the animal's rate of response
reinforcement
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to the desired behavior
chaining
a shaping procedure that involves reinforcing a series of behaviors in a row
discriminative stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement
positive reinforcement
a stimulus added after a behavior that makes the behavior more likely to reoccur
negative reinforcement
a stimulus removed after a behavior that makes the behavior more likely to reoccur
primary reinforcer
an inherently reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need (e.g. food)
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its power through association with a primary reinforcer (aka secondary reinforcer)
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing a desired behavior every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only some of the time (slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction)
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after a specific number of times
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after a an unpredictable number of times
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after a specific amount of time has passed
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
punishment
any event that weakens the behavior that it follows
positive punishment
a stimulus added after a behavior that makes the behavior less likely to reoccur
negative punishment
a stimulus removed after a behavior that makes the behavior less likely to reoccur
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is a need to demonstrate it
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive reinforcement or avoid punishment
overjustification effect
a phenomenon in which being reinforced for doing a behavior reduces one's intrinsic motivation for the task
coping
alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
observational learning
learning by observing others (also called social learning)
vicarious learning
learning by observing another person's behavior being reinforced or punished
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; may enable imitation and empathy
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior