ap psych unit 6

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to our experiences

habituation

our tendency to pay less attention to a stimulus the more times we have been exposed to it

associative learning

learning to associate two events with each other

stimulus

any situation or sensory experience that causes a response

cognitive learning

learning new information through language or observation

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we learn to link two stimuli together

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science and therefore focus only on observable behaviors, and not unobservable mental processes

neutral stimulus (NS)

before conditioning takes place, this is a stimulus that produces no response (e.g. the bell)

unconditioned response (UR)

an automatic, unlearned behavior caused by a stimulus (e.g. drooling)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that causes an automatic, unlearned response (e.g. food)

conditioned response (CR)

the same behavior as the UR, but now caused by the CS instead of the US (e.g. drooling to the bell)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that provoked no response before conditioning, but now provokes a response because conditioning has occurred (e.g. the bell)

acquisition

the stage in which we learn to associate two stimuli together and develop a CR

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the CS is paired with a new NS until the new NS also becomes a CS

extinction

occurs when a CR no longer occurs because the CS has been presented repeatedly without the US

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinct CR

generalization

the tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to also produce a CR

discrimination

the ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli similar to the CS; no CR occurs with the similar stimulus

taste aversions

a type of classical conditioning where we associate the taste of a food with the (usually negative) symptoms it causes

instinctive drift

the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

a chamber (aka Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can push to obtain a reinforcer; the device records the animal's rate of response

reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to the desired behavior

chaining

a shaping procedure that involves reinforcing a series of behaviors in a row

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

positive reinforcement

a stimulus added after a behavior that makes the behavior more likely to reoccur

negative reinforcement

a stimulus removed after a behavior that makes the behavior more likely to reoccur

primary reinforcer

an inherently reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need (e.g. food)

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its power through association with a primary reinforcer (aka secondary reinforcer)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a desired behavior every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only some of the time (slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction)

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after a specific number of times

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after a an unpredictable number of times

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after a specific amount of time has passed

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

punishment

any event that weakens the behavior that it follows

positive punishment

a stimulus added after a behavior that makes the behavior less likely to reoccur

negative punishment

a stimulus removed after a behavior that makes the behavior less likely to reoccur

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is a need to demonstrate it

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive reinforcement or avoid punishment

overjustification effect

a phenomenon in which being reinforced for doing a behavior reduces one's intrinsic motivation for the task

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others (also called social learning)

vicarious learning

learning by observing another person's behavior being reinforced or punished

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; may enable imitation and empathy

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior