CH 3 - Protestant Reformation (AP Euro Unit 2)

Protestant Reformation

• Began in free imperial cities (Saxony, Switz)

• Goal was a simpler and more egalitarian Church

• Challenged Renaissance idealism but followed its antiquity (Greek/Hebrew scripture)

Causes of the PR

• Spiritually weak Medieval church (simony, nepotism)

• Printing press and postal systems spread info/literacy

• Fragmented Germany

• Guilds spread ideas for $

• Oppressed laity sought freedom to shape their own religious life

Lutheran Beliefs

• Justification by faith (Sola Fide), not good deeds

• Priesthood of all believers (all Christians are equal)

• Consubstantiation (Real Presence of God in the Eucharist)

• Sola Scriptura (Authority only from the scripture)

Imperial Distractions

• Charles V preoccupied w/ wars against France (Valois) & Ottoman Turks

• German Diet of Speyer: Princes could enforce Edict of Worms independently; granted religious territorial sovereignty

Ulrich Zwingli

• Leader of the Swiss Reformation in Zurich

• Reforms:

  • Ended clerical celibacy

  • Belief by Scripture only

  • Eucharist was symbolic

  • His reforms made Zurich puritanical

The Marburg Colloquy (1529)

• Attempt by Philip of Hesse to unite Luther and Zwingli

• Failed due to disagreement over the Eucharist (Luther’s Real Presence vs Zwingli’s symbolic);

• Effect: Theological & political division of Protestantism

Anabaptists

• Founder & Location: Conrad Grebel in Switzerland

• Main belief: Adult baptism; seperation of church/state; New Testament for Bible

• Schleitheim Confession: Laid out key beliefs (pacifism, separation of church/state)

• Outcomes: Persecuted

John Calvin

• Leader of the Genevan Reformation

• Beliefs: Predestination/elect & individual's responsibility to reorder society according to God’s law

• Institutes of the Christian Religion: Manual for Calvinism & reformed religions

• Geneva Catechism: Q&A book to help children understand faith

Calvin’s Geneva

• Combined church & state (theocracy)

• The Consistory (elders & pastors) was a regulatory court that enforced strict moral discipline

• Town council: Determined legislation both secular & rel

• Refuge for persecuted Protestants

• Strict rep (execution of Michael Servetus)

English Reformation

• Driven primarily by political factors

• Henry VIII wanted a papal annulment from Catherine of Aragon (to produce a male heir) but Pope Clement VII refused

Acts of the English Reformation

• Submission of the Clergy: Church law under the king

• Act of Supremacy: Henry VIII became Supreme Head of the Eng Church breaking from Rome

• Act of Succession: Anne’s children became legit heirs to throne

Edward VI

• Embraced full Protestantism w/ Calvin

• Imposed Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer through the Act of Uniformity

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra

• Spanish author who wrote Don Quixote

• Satirized the romanticized ideals of medieval chivalry and tradition

William Shakespeare

• English dramatist

• Works showed universal human themes, often rooted in contemporary religious traditions

• Conservative, accepting Elizabethan social/power structures

Clavinism

Founder & Location: John Calvin in Geneva (Switz)

Beliefs: sola fide & predestination

Outcome: Confidence in church ministry, influenced modern capitalism (work ethic)

Anglicanism

• Founder & Location: King Henry VIII in England

• Beliefs: sola fide, 2 sacraments, continuation of leadership from bishops, authority in scripture, tradition, and reason

• Outcome: Royal supremacy & global expansion (NA)

Methodist

• Founder & Location: John Wesley in Britain

• Beliefs: Ministry of believers (all Methodists are ministers of Christ), Sanctification (process of being holy for God)

• Outcome: Declined due to theological disagreements

Zwinglianism

• Founder & Location: Huldrych Zwingli in Zurich (Switz)

• Beliefs: Worship should be simple and clear; Eucharist was symbolic (Christ wasn’t physically present)

• Marburg Colloquy: Divide in Reform due to Zwingli & Luther’s differing Eucharist views

• Outcome: Zwingli’s death guided Swiss Reform to established religion & led to its merge w/ Calvinism

Mennonite

• Founder & Leader: Menno Simons in Zurich (Switz) w/ ties to Swiss Brethren

• Beliefs: Adult baptist, didn’t use word sacrament as they saw acts as way to represent faith, not salvation, pacifist

• Outcome: Modern day Mennonites are prevalent emphasizing issues like peace

Martin Luther

• Father of Protestantism & Lutheranism

• Justification by faith (not deeds)

• 95 Theses fought indulgences

• Ppl must believe for themselves

• Everyone’s equal (“priesthood of all believers”)

Johann Tetzel

• Preacher who marketed indulgences as remitting punishment for sins, saving fam in purgatory, as a charitable church donation

• Sparked the 95 Theses

Indulgences

• Was a way to lessen temporal punishment (purgatory) for sins

• Sold by Pope Leo X to build St. Peter’s Basilica

• Led to Luther’s 95 Theses

• Ppl saw indulgences meant that poor ppl couldn’t get into heaven

sola fide

• Luther’s argument that salvation was achieved solely by having faith in God, not deeds

• Many Protestant sects adopted this ideology (Anglicans); challenged church

95 Theses (Oct 31, 1517)

• Luther’s 95 arguments against selling indulgences (and Tetzel) posted on the Castle Church door

• Distributed by printing press

• Marked start of Reform, challenging church

Diet of Worms

• Meeting led by Charles 

• Luther asked to recant, but didn’t to follow reason & scripture

• Luther placed on imperial ban (outlaw)

Augsburg Confession

• Articles of Lutheran beliefs (Church abuses) written mostly by Melanchthon

• Presented at Diet of Augsburg, but rejected

• Led to formation of Schmalkaldic League

Schmalkaldic League

• Lutheran defensive alliance (princes) against Charles V

• Led to stalemate w/ Charles V who was distracted by wars

• Catholic unity ended

Habsburg-Valois War

• Habsburgs (Charles V) fought w/ the Valois (Francis I) for Italian territories

• Distracted Charles V, allowing Reform to solidify

Tragedy at Münster

• Anabaptists rebellion that expelled/converted Catholics & Lutherans

• Turned Munster into an Old Testament theocracy

• Crushed by Prot & Cath forces

• More pacifist Anabaptism (Mennonites)

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

• Made by Schmalkaldic League & forced Charles V to agree

• Ruler had control over land’s religion (Cuius regio, eius religio)

• Prevented the prelates from taking land if they convert (ecclesiastical reservation)

• Ended Catholic vs Protestant conflict

• Germany religiously divided

Henry VIII

• Wanted papal annulment from Catherine of Aragon (no male heir)

• Formed Church of England (Anglican)

• Act of Supremacy & Succession, forced ppl to recognize

• Six articles: kept most Catholic doctrines, hindering the PR

Thomas More

• Henry VIII’s advisor; executed for refusing to recognize Acts of Succession & Supremacy

• Helped opposed Protestants (Response to Luther)

Act of Supremacy

• Made Henry VIII supreme head of the Church of England

• Doubles royal revenue

• Punished those who refused to acknowledge king as supreme head (More, Fisher)

Mary Tudor “Bloody Mary”

• Reverted Henry & Edward’s rel changes

• Prosecuted Protestants to unsuccessfully restore Catholicism

• Protestants fled (Marian exiles)

Elizabeth I

• Politique: Found a middle ground btwn Anglicanism & Protestantism

• Elizabethan Settlement: Forced ppl to conform to England Church but allowed private worship

• Executed Mary Stuart (threat)

• Act of Uniformity: Forced Book of Common Prayer for all church services

• Anglican church had some Catholic practices & tolerated private belief (unity)

Politique

Politicians who prioritized political unity over other parts of society (religious unity)

Teresa de Avila

• Spanish reform leader for monasteries and convents (Carmelite Reform)

• Believed ppl could have relationship w/ God via prayer & self-discipline

Catholic (Counter) Reformation

• Response to Prot & internal criticism

• Council of Trent & Jesuits

• Internal reforms/discipline (sale of privileges lessened, bishops greater control over clergy, seminaries to train priests)

• Created a unified disciplined church

Council of Trent

• By Pope Paul III to reaffirm Cath doctrine (good deeds, 7 sacraments, scholasticism), cementing division & reform church (indulgences)

• Approved Index of Forbidden Books

• Parish life & Cath Church revived due to better clergy

Jesuits (Society of Jesus)/Ignatius of Loyola

• Rel order founded by Igantius

• Spiritual Exercises: Guidebook for Jesuits emphasizing discipline

• Beliefs: Serving God by following Christian virtues (chastity & obedience vows)

• Goals: Reform via education, spread gospel to pagans, fight Protestantism

• Support for traditional spirituality, converted Protestants

What criticisms did the Catholic Church face?

• Benefice System/simony (church positions sold)

• Absenteeism: Officials ignoring duties (not living in parishes) but getting $ & privileges

• Sale of indulgences

• Pluralism: Holding several offices

• Nepotism: Giving church positions to relatives

• Priestly ignorance: Limited education (illiterate)

• Clergy privileges & immorality (exempt from court & taxes, celibacy)

What were some of Martin Luther’s major objections to the practices of the Catholic Church?

• Salvation from good deeds was unrealistic

• Selling of indulgences

• Believed in Real Presence (Consubstantiation) of God in blood/wine

• Only Bible hold authority, not the Church

• Equality (Priesthood of all believers), not a hierarchy

• 2 sacraments (Baptism & Eucharist)

What was the Church’s initial reaction to Luther’s 95 Theses and why did it have strong appeal in Germany?

• Appeal: Ppl saw indulgences meaning that poor ppl couldn’t get into heaven & princes saw it as way to gain power

• Church initially dismissed it, but later condemned Luther

• Exsurge Domine bull: Demanded Luther to recant; excommunicated after he burnt the bull

What were the causes of the Peasants’ Revolt of 1525-26? What was Luther’s reaction and why?

• Causes: Opposed peasants (serfdom), new regulations/taxes, saw Luther as ally (Christian freedom)

• Reaction: Luther urged princes to put it down

• Why: Saw revolt as “un-Christian” (destroyed country, devil’s work) & contradictory to own teachings (broke oaths of obedience, seperation of rel & pol)

Where did Calvinism spread throughout the 16th century?

• Started in Geneva, Swiss

• Spread to France (Huguenots), Scotland (Presbyterians), Netherlands, Eng & New World (Puritanism)

Why did Henry VIII break with the Catholic Church and what ramifications did that have in England?

• Motive: Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine

• Effects:

  • Church of England (Anglican)

  • Act of Supremacy & Succession (Henry became head)

  • Doubled royal revenues

  • Six Articles

What impact did the Reformation have on women?

• Got praised (housewife/mother)

• New laws for better equality (divorce) & protection

• Vernacular education for girls

• Still subject to husbands (patriarchal)

What impact did the Reformation have on the family?

• Nuclear families (2 parents, 2-4 children)

• Children (8-13) sent to apprenticeships, school, employment to become self-sufficient

• Widowers/widows remarried within months for utility

What impact did the Reformation have on education?

• Blended w/ humanistic studies (classics)

• Wittenberg Education (Luther & Melanchthon):

  • Canon law dropped

  • Historical studies (from scholastic lectures)

  • Direct primary sources (from scholastic interpretations)

  • Own study of Bible

How does the label ‘Catholic’ or ‘Counter’ Reformation imply two different interpretations?

Catholic: Church reform was already ongoing before PR due to church problems (Great Schism)

Counter: Church reform was a response to the PR to counter its spread

Why were new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, founded?

• To revive Catholic spiritualism & loyalty for CR by addressing Church criticisms & fighting Protestantism

  • Theatines: Raised devout reform-minded leaders

  • Jesuits: Believed a good Catholic would serve God by following Christian virtues, vows of chastity & obedience (more spirituality)

What did baroque art attempt to convey and explain why it was considered to be a reflection of the Counter-Reformation?

• Tried conveying the power & glory of the church w/ emotion (dramatic light) that overwhelmed the viewer to gain spirituality back

• Served as a way to gain back followers, gaining back papal authority, and being for common ppl

• Example: Caravaggio’s The Calling of St Matthew

Preacherships

Local gov’t hired skilled priests for preaching & pastoral care

Swiss Brethren

• Grebel’s anabaptist group

• Schleitheim Confession: Laid out beliefs of pacificism & seperation from secular gov’t

Spiritualists

• Rejected external religion

• Authority came from God who spoke within individuals

Antitrinitarians

Believed in a rational & ethical rel, rejecting Trinity (God existing as 3 parts)

Peace of Passau

• Reinstated Protestant leaders & gave religious freedoms

• Charles V gave up on religious unity goal

Reformation Parliament

• Parliament convened for 7-years to get control over clergy (greviances against church)

• Submission of Clergy put church law under the kign

Religious Changes in the 16th c.

• Vernacular worship

• Religious holidays shrunk by 1/3; n

• Punished veneration of saints, relics, imgs

• Clergy married & subject to laws/taxes

What Was the Reformation? - Euan Cameron

Argued laymen’s political goals (church independence) kept the Reform alive by supporting religious reformers’ protests (church corruption, justification by faith)

A Political Interpretation of the Reformation - G. R. Elton

• Success/failure of Reform depended on whether secular power supported it (Germany), usually for political benefits (centralization)

• Religious uniformity (cuius regio eius religio) for pol unity

Constitution of the Society of Jesus

Jesuit guide to serve God by following Christian virtues (deeds), vows of chastity & obedience/self-sacrifice, allow pope to send u anywhere

The Way of Perfection - Theresa of Avila

Guide on how to create deeper relationship (guidance, judgment) w/ god (prayer) w/ virtues like humility & self-discipline (detachment)

The Catholic Reformation - John C. Olin

• Main cause was Great Schism (not just PR)

• CR became unified with general course (rel reform)

• Marked a personal (spiritual/moral life) & pastoral mission (training priests, discipline)

Women in the Reformation - Marilyn J. Boxer & Jean H. Quataert

• Women were crucial in spreading ideas from spouses/mothers to aristocrat fams & commoners

• Women participated in earlier events challenging order

• Reform failed to elevate women’s status (weak)

The Devil’s Handmaid: Women in the Age of Reformation - William Monter

• Reasons for superstition (witchcraft & infanticide):

  • institutions’ increasing involvement w/ daily life (state forced church attendance, control life)

  • vigilant public authorities (fear)

  • Medicine viewed as superstition

  • Patriarchal views (single women/widows accused)

The Legacy of the Reformation - Steven E. Ozment

• Traditional infrastructure (saints, holidays) dismantled left ppl w/o a way to deal w/ problems → anxiety

• Protestant disenchantment led to superstition (witchcraft)

Roman Inquisition

Established by Pope Paul III during Catholic Reform, persecuting heretics; created fear

Social Hierarchy

Social mobility grew due to merchant elites; land ownership still important; religion mattered; patriarchal

Reform Marriage

Parental consent required & public vows in church (Trent) for valid marriage as opposed to free private marriage

Wet Nursing

Church opposed as it increased infant mortality; for convenience & vanity; form of birth control

Impact of Reform on religion & politics:

Religion: Toleration & freedom, vernacular worship, Protestant sects

Politics: Monarch’s control of church, territorial sovereignty (Germany), HRE decline

Why wasn’t the Reform successful in Italy?

Italy housed Roman papacy & heavily influenced by Spanish Catholic monarchs