ap psych unit 2: cognition

sensation

The process of detecting, converting, and transmitting raw sensory information from the external and internal environments to the brain.

perception

The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information.

top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, using experience and expectations to construct perceptions; what you think you see

bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information; what you’re actually seeing

schema

A collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem-solving.

perceptual set

A readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way.

selective attention

The ability to focus on one stimulus and ignore others.

inattentional blindness

The failure to notice the existence of an unexpected item.

cocktail party effect

The ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises.

change blindness

failure to notice obvious change

subliminal messages

stimuli that are not detectable 50% of the time because they are below your threshold

multimodal perception

the process of combining info from multiple senses to create a unified representation of the world

mcgurk effect

an illusion where what you see impacts what you hear

extra sensory perception

the controversial claim that awareness can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy [mind to mind communication], clairvoyance [seeing remote events], + precognition [seeing the future]

depth perception

the ability to perceive the relative distance of objects in one’s visual field

monocular depth cues

requires only one eye to inform the visual system abt the depth of a target or its distance from the observer

relative clarity

a monocular depth cue consisting of the relative clarity of objects under varying atmospheric conditions; nearer objects are usually clearer in detail, whereas more distance objects are less distinct + appear bluer

relative size

if separate objects are expected to be of the same size, the larger ones are seen as closer

texture gradient

the progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them

linear perspective

the principle that the size of an object’s visual image is a function of its distance from the eye.

interposition

a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partially conceals the farther object

binocular depth cues

a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partially conceals the farther object

retinal disparity

• the slight diff between the right + left retinal images

  • when both eyes focus on an object, the diff position of the eyes produces a disparity of visual angle + a slightly diff image is received by each retina. the 2 images are automatically compared and, if sufficiently similar, are fused, providing an important cue to depth perception 

covergence

the rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding pts on the foveas

size constancy

perceived size of an object remains constant despite changes in the size of the retinal image of that object

shape constancy

perceived shape of an object remains constant despite changes in the shape of the retinal image of that object

brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under diff conditions of illumination

color constancy

the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same color under diff conditions of illumination

concepts

form the basis of thought & are mental representations of objects + categories

prototype

a mental image or “best example” of a concept

schema

frameworks for thinking

assimilation

taking in new info, but not changing the schema in light of it

accommodation

taking in new info + changing the schema to incorporate the new info

algorithm

• a defined procedure or set of rules used to accomplish a task

  • every possible option

  • solution guaranteed

heuristic

• experience based strategy for solving a problem

  • shortcut

  • solution not guaranteed

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut that involves judging whether something belongs to a given class on the basis of its similarity to other members of that class

availability heuristic

•  a mental shortcut where judgements are based on info that is most easily brought to mind

  • recent, vivid, or distinctive

mental set

a temporary readiness to perform certain psychological functions that influences the response to a situation or stimulus, such as the tendency to apply a previously successful technique in solving a new problem

fixation

a preoccupation w/h a single idea, impulse, or aimp

priming

• the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory 

  • ex. “as you watch this, take note of something weird”

framing

the process of defining the context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived + evaluated; phrasing

fallacy

error in doing something

gambler’s fallacy

the mistaken belief held by some people that independent events are interrelated

sunk-cost fallacy

the tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested $, time, or effort

executive functions

• generate

• organize

• plan 

• carry out behaviors

• think critically

creativity

way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas + engaging in divergent thinking

divergent thinking

looking for a solution using strategies that deviate from commonly used methods of solving the problem c

convergent thinking

using a linear or logical way to solve a problem that’s already been formulated 

functional fixedness

inability to consider a new function for an item

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of info

recall

retrieving info from memory

recognition

identifying the target from possible targets

encoding

the process of taking in sensory info into the memory system

storage

the process of info into the memory system

retrieval

the process of getting info out of memory storage

sensory memory

a split second holding tank for all sensory info

iconic memory

visual memory; lasts .3 seconds

echoic memory

auditory memory; lasts 2 - 3 seconds

short-term memory

events are encoded visually, acoustically, or semantically; holds abt 7 items for abt 20 secs

long-term memory

unlimited storehouse of info

explicit / declarative memories

conscious recollection

episodic memories

events

semantic memories

facts

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

mnemonic devices

a saying or acronym that helps you remember info

rehearsal

literally pure memorization

prospective memory / memory of the future

when someone recalls or remembers to do something in the future

working memory

part of the short term memory concerned w/h immediate conscious perceptual + linguistic processes

phonological loop

memory for sound or linguistics

visuospatial sketchpad

visual + spatial info

central executive system

acts as a supervisory system of info

episodic buffer

related to the storage of info that will become long term memories of specific events