ap psych unit 2: cognition

unit 2: cognition

principles of perception

• sensation - the process of detecting, converting, + transmitting raw sensory info from the external + internal environments → the brain

• perception - the process of selecting, organizing, + interpreting sensory info

• info can be processed in 2 ways:

  • top-down processing - info processing guided by higher-level mental processes; when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience + expectations

    • what you think you see

    • vulnerability to illusion

  • bottom-up processing - analysis that begins w/h sensory receptors + works up to brain’s integration of sensory info

    • what you’re actually seeing

• schema - a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem-solving

  • ex. pburg’s rivalry game v. other schools’ rivalry games

• perceptual set - a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way

  • ex. “when i am home alone, every noise i hear is a serial killer”

• selective attention - the ability to focus on one stimulus + ignore others

  • how much of your focus is actually on the task at hand?

• inattentional blindness - the failure to notice the existence of an unexpected item

• cocktail party effect - the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations + bg noises 

• change blindness - failure to notice obvious change 

• subliminal stimuli - not detectable 50% of the time bc it’s below your threshold

factors that influence perception

• one sense can influence another

  • ex. food

    • tastes, looks, textures, + smells all work together for us to perceive the flavor of food

  • multimodal perception - the process of combining info from multiple senses to create a unified representation of the world

  • McGurk effect - an illusion where what you see impacts what you hear

• genetics + age can influence perception

  • supertaster - someone who has a stronger sensitivity taste than the average person, usually bc they have more taste buds on their tongue

    • especially sensitive to bitter tastes

  • hearing different frequencies - age will impact what frequencies you're able to hear

    • hearing gets worse as you get older

• perception w/o awareness

  • subliminal messages - stimuli that are not detectable 50% of the time. they’re below your absolute threshold

• sixth sense

  • extra sensory perception - the controversial claim that awareness can occur apart from sensory input

    • includes telepathy [mind to mind communication], clairvoyance [seeing remote events], + precognition [seeing the future]

visual perceptual processes 

• depth perception - the ability to perceive the relative distance of objects in one’s visual field

• monocular depth cues - requires only one eye to inform the visual system abt the depth of a target or its distance from the observer

  • relative clarity - a monocular depth cue consisting of the relative clarity of objects under varying atmospheric conditions. 

    • nearer objects are usually clearer in detail, whereas more distance objects are less distinct + appear bluer

  • relative size - if separate objects are expected to be of the same size, the larger ones are seen as closer

  • texture gradient - the progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them 

  • linear perspective - the principle that the size of an object’s visual image is a function of its distance from the eye. 

    • thus, two objects appear closer together as the distance from them increases + appear to converge on the horizon

  • interposition - a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partially conceals the farther object

• binocular depth cues - requires integration of info from the 2 eyes & includes signals abt the convergence of the eyes + retinal disparity 

  • retinal disparity - the slight diff between the right + left retinal images

    • when both eyes focus on an object, the diff position of the eyes produces a disparity of visual angle + a slightly diff image is received by each retina. the 2 images are automatically compared and, if sufficiently similar, are fused, providing an important cue to depth perception 

  • convergence - the rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding pts on the foveas 

perceptual constancies

• size constancy -  perceived size of an object remains constant despite changes in the size of the retinal image of that object

• shape constancy - perceived shape of an object remains constant despite changes in the shape of the retinal image of that object

• brightness constancy - the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under diff conditions of illumination

• color constancy - the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same color under diff conditions of illumination 

thinking + problem-solving 

• thinking:

  • concepts - form the basis of thought & are mental representations of objects + categories

  • prototype - a mental image or “best example” of a concept

    • has all of the most typical features of an item within an overarching concept

  • schema - frameworks for thinking

  • assimilation - taking in new info, but not changing the schema in light of it

  • accommodation - taking in new info + changing the schema to incorporate the new info

• problem-solving:

  • algorithm - a defined procedure or set of rules used to accomplish a task

    • every possible option

    • solution guaranteed

  • heuristic - experience based strategy for solving a problem

    • shortcut

    • solution not guaranteed 

    • representative heuristic - a mental shortcut that involves judging whether something belongs to a given class on the basis of its similarity to other members of that class

    • availability heuristic - a mental shortcut where judgements are based on info that is most easily brought to mind

      • recent, vivid, or distinctive 

decision making

• mental set - a temporary readiness to perform certain psychological functions that influences the response to a situation or stimulus, such as the tendency to apply a previously successful technique in solving a new problem

• fixation - a preoccupation w/h a single idea, impulse, or aim

• priming - the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory 

  • ex. “as you watch this, take note of something weird”

    • primed to look for something

  • giving you a hint before

• framing - the process of defining the context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived + evaluated

  • the way something is phrased to you

• fallacy - error in doing something 

  • gambler’s fallacy - the mistaken belief held by some people that independent events are interrelated

  • sunk-cost fallacy - the tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested $, time, or effort

• executive functions:

  • generate

  • organize

  • plan 

  • carry out behaviors

  • think critically 

creativity 

• creativity -  way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas + engaging in divergent (v. convergent) thinking 

• divergent thinking - looking for a solution using strategies that deviate from commonly used methods of solving the problem 

• convergent thinking - using a linear or logical way to solve a problem that’s already been formulated

  • functional fixedness - inability to consider a new function for an item

memory 

•  memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of info

• recall v. recognition

  • recall: 

    • you must retrieve the info from your memory

    • fill-in-the-blank or essay tests

  • recognition: 

    • you must identify the target from possible targets

    • multiple-choice tests

• memory process:

  • encoding - the process of info into the memory system

    • take in info w/h your senses

  • storage - the retention of encoded material over time

    •  short + long term memory 

  • retrieval- the process of getting the info out of memory storage 

• three box model of memory:

  • sensory memory

  • short-term memory

  • long-term memory